UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA 


DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 


GIFT  OF  THE   PUBLISHER 
m.S^^p  Received   /  /   ^^^f 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE' 

University  of  California. 

GIFT    OF 


Class 


OUTLINES 


OF 


GREEK    HISTORY 


WITH    A    SURVEY   OF 
ANCIENT    ORIENTAL   NATIONS 


BY 

WILLIAM   C.  MOREY,  Ph.D.,  D.C.L. 

PROFESSOR  OF  HISTORY   AND   POLITICAL   SCIENCE,   UNIVERSITY 

OF   ROCHESTER 

AUTHOR  OF   "OUTLINES   OF  ROMAN   HISTORY,"    "OUTLINES 

OF  ROMAN  LAW,"   ETC. 

COMPLIMENTS 

AMERICAN  BOOK  CO  ■ 

A.  P.  OUNN^^gga^-t^ 

PIN  FT  &  BATTERY 

SAN  ;f;R.A.?^c.ISCC)   ." 


NEW  YOKK  •;•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


Copyright,  1903,  by 
WILLIAM   C.   MOREY. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 


GREEK    HISTORY. 

W.  p.   I 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  give  to  young  students  a 
general  idea  of  the  growth  and  character  of  the  civilization 
of  ancient  Greece.  As  it  is  intended  to  form,  with  the  author's 
"Outlines  of  Roman  History,"  a  complete  elementary  course 
in  ancient  history,  it  contains  a  brief  introduction  —  indicating 
the  relation  of  history  to  civilization  in  general,  and  referring 
to  the  primitive  culture  with  which  civilization  may  be  said  to 
begin.  It  also  contains  a  preliminary  sketch  of  the  progress 
of  civilization  before  the  time  of  the  Greeks  among  the  ancient 
Oriental  peoples. 

The  fundamental  idea  has  been  kept  in  mind  that  the  his- 
torical significance  of  any  people  must  be  estimated  by  what 
it  has  contributed  to  the  general  civilization  of  the  world.  The 
historical  importance  of  the  ancient  Greeks  rests  upon  their 
contributions  to  the  growth  of  political  liberty  and  to  the 
development  of  a  superior  intellectual  and  aesthetic  culture. 
The  attempt  has  been  made  to  select  and  describe  those  facts 
which  illustrate  the  most  important  and  distinguishing  traits 
of  the  Grecian  character.  The  political  history  is  intended  to 
show  the  extent  to  which  the  Greeks  were  successful  in  the 
development  of  free  institutions  and  an  organized  city  state, 
and  also  the  reasons  of  their  failure  to  develop  a  national  state 
system.  The  history  of  culture  is  intended  to  show  the  great 
advance  made  by  the  Greeks  upon  the  previous  culture  of  the 
Orient.  The  successive  stages  of  this  culture  are  traced  through 
the  several  periods  of  Greek  history.  As  the  history  of 
Greece  finds  its  most  significant  center  in  Athens,  and  as  the 
history  of  Athens  finds  its  center  in  the  age  of  Pericles,  this 
period  is  taken  as  the  one  best  suited  for  a  survey  of  the  more 


6  PREFACE 

special  features  of  Greek  culture.  The  permanent  character 
of  this  culture  is  also  emphasized  by  showing  how  it  persisted 
after  the  fall  of  the  Athenian  empire,  how  it  was  carried  to 
the  East  with  the  conquests  of  Alexander,  and  how  it  was 
carried  to  the  West  with  the  Roman  conquest  and  has  retained 
its  influence  upon  the  modern  world. 

To  keep  the  student's  mind  fixed  upon  the  points  under  dis- 
cussion, the  topical  method  has  been  employed.  While  this 
method  may  not  appear  to  be  the  most  literary  in  its  form,  it 
certainly  seems  the  most  scientific  in  its  results.  By  the  logi- 
cal arrangement  of  these  topics  the  student  is  enabled  to  see  the 
relation  between  the  general  and  the  special  subjects.  He  will 
come  to  have  a  scientific  conception  of  history  when  he  learns 
that  a  particular  fact  or  event  is  important  as  it  bears  upon  a 
more  general  movement,  and  that  such  movement  is  important 
as  it  relates  to  the  general  development  of  the  national  life  and 
character.  The  relation  of  the  several  chapters  to  one  another 
is  indicated  in  the  table  of  contents.  That  the  student  may 
obtain  some  idea  of  historical  grouping,  he  should  be  encour- 
aged to  present  a  synopsis  of  each  chapter,  indicating  its  gen- 
eral divisions  and  subordinate  topics  as  set  forth  in  the  text. 
He  should  also  be  expected  to  supplement  this  synopsis  by 
notes  gathered  from  the  instruction  given  in  the  class-room 
and  from  his  own  reading,  and  by  brief  remarks  upon  the 
books  or  chapters  which  he  has  read  in  connection  with  his 
class-room  work. 

Each  chapter  is  supplemented  by  "  selections  for  reading,-' 
with  references  to  specific  chapters  in  the  books  with  which 
the  student  should  be  most  familiar;  also  a  subject  for 
"special  study,"  w^hich  may  be  assigned  as  a  topic  for  a 
class-room  essay  or  oral  dissertation.  These  "  selections  "  and 
"  studies  "  are  given  simply  as  specimens  of  what  the  teacher 
may  require.  The  extent  of  such  work  must  be  determined 
by  each  teacher  for  himself,  adjusted  as  it  must  be  to  the 
proficiency  of  each  class.  The  references  include  some  of 
the    more    important    sources,  which  are   inserted,  like  other 


PREFACE  7 

authorities,  simply  to  afford  illustrations  of  the  subjects 
treated,  and  not  to  give  the  young  pl^pil  the  fallacious 
notion  that  he  is  reconstructing  history  from  "original 
authorities  "  —  a  kind  of  work  which  forms  the  most  advanced 
and  difficult  part  of  an  historical  training.  Teachers  who  wish 
to  employ  what  is  called  the  "  source  method  "  will  lind  valu- 
able suggestions  in  the  report  of  the  New  England  History 
Teachers'  Association,  published  under  the  title,  "  Historical 
Sources  in  Schools."  They  will  also  obtain  an  idea,  of  the 
legitimate  use  of  sources  from  Professor  Bourne's  "  Teaching 
of  History  and  Civics  in  the  Elementary  and  the  Secondary 
School." 

The  illustrative  material  which  has  been  introduced  into 
the  text  has  been  selected  for  the  sole  purpose  of  throwing 
light  upon  the  subjects  treated.  The  maps  are  given  to 
enable  the  pupil  to  locate  every  place  mentioned.  The  "  Pro- 
gressive Maps "  are  drawn  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the 
geographical  history  of  Greece  and  the  Orient.  Appended  to 
the  volume  is  a  classified  list  of  some  of  the  most  important 
and  recent  books  upon  Oriental  and  Greek  history;  the 
older  works  are  generally  excluded,  unless  they  still  possess 
an  exceptional  value. 

It  is  perhaps  proper  to  say  a  word  upon  that  mooted  ques- 
tion, the  spelling  of  Greek  names.  It  is  well  known  that  these 
names,  for  the  most  part,  first  came  into  the  English  language 
through  the  Latin,  and  for  a  long  time  their  Latinized  form 
was  preserved.  The  comparatively  recent  attempt  to  recast 
these  names  into  a  form  more  consistent  with  the  original 
Greek  has  not  been  attended  with  unqualified  success.  The 
use  of  Kroisos  for  Croesus,  Kleisthenes  for  Clisthenes,  Kykla- 
des  for  Cyclades,  Kypros  for  Cyprus,  seems  strange,  if  not 
repulsive,  to  the  English  reader.  It  is  a  satisfaction  to  know 
that  that  accomplished  Greek  scholar  and  archaeologist,  Pro- 
fessor Ernest  Arthur  Gardner,  in  his  recent  work  on  "  Ancient 
Athens,"  has  declared  himself  in  favor  of  the  familiar  Latin- 
ized forms.     While  admitting  the  difficulty  of  attaining  any 


8  PREFACE 

complete  consistency,  he  says,  "In  spelling,  custom  and 
familiarity  must^be  the  paramount  considerations ;  and  I 
think  a  natural  reaction  is  setting  in  among  scholars  against 
a  too  indiscriminate  use  of  A:,  ei,  on,  etc.,  in  forms  that  are 
often  not  only  uncouth  in  appearance,  but  actually  misleading 
in  pronunciation"  ("Ancient  Athens,"  Preface,  viii).  The 
spelling  of  Greek  names  sanctioned  by  Professor  Gardner 
and.  favored  by  the  more  conservative  writers,  is  used  in  this 
book. 

In  attempting  to  put  the  history  of  Greece  into  the  form 
of  a  text-book,  the  author  has  kept  before  his  mind  simply 
what  he  believes  to  be  the  needs  of  pupils  and  the  wants  of 
teachers.  He  has  adopted  neither  a  purely  narrative  style, 
—  which  often  fails  to  give  the  real  significance  of  events,  — 
nor  a  purely  philosophical  method,  —  which  often  deals  with 
abstract  generalizations  unsupported  by  facts.  His  aim  has 
been  to  point  out,  as  clearly  as  possible,  the  most  essential 
and  significant  facts  in  Greek  history,  to  show  their  bearing 
upon  the  growth  of  the  Hellenic  city  state,  to  indicate  their 
influence  upon  the  development  of  Greek  culture,  and  to 
suggest  the  important  place  which  this  culture  holds  in  the 
civilization  of  the  world. 

W.  C.  M. 

University  of  Rochester, 
Rochester,  N.Y. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 
I. 


Introduction  —The  Beginnings  of  History 


ANCIENT   ORIENTAL   NATIONS 

11.     The  Far  Eastern  Countries  —  China  and  India  . 

III.  The  Mesopotamian  Countries  —  Babylonia  and  Assyria 

IV.  The  Hither  Orient  —  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  Judea 


PAGE 
11 


21 
32 
45 


BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 

PERIOD  I.     The  Prehistoric  Age  of  Greece  (- 

V.     Hellas  and  the  Hellenes 

VI.     The  Oldest  Civilization  of  Greece 
VII.     Homer  and  the  Homeric  Culture 


(76  B.C.) 


VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 


69 
83 
94 


PERIOD  II.     The  Formation  of  the  Greek  S-Avx^s 
(776-500  B.C.) 

The  Character  of  the  Greek  City  State 

The  Dorian  City  State  —  Sparta 

The  Ionian  City  State  —  Athens 

The  Expansion  of  Greece  —  the  Colonies 

The  Culture  of  the  Early  Greek  States 


fiV^IES 


11^ 
120 
139 
149 


THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 

PERIOD  III.     The  Persia.n  Wajis  ;  Growing  Power  of 
Athens  (500M:71I  b:c.) 

XIII.  The  Encroachments  of  the  East  upon  the  West  .         .     165 

XIV.  The  Invasions  of  Greece  by  Darius  and  Xerxes  .         .         .     177 
XV.     Effects  of  the  Persian  Wars  upoii  Greek  Culture         .         .     193 

PERIOD  IV.     The  Athenian  Empire  ;  Age  of  Pericles 
(479-431  B.C.) 

XVI.     The  Growth  of  the  Athenian  Empire 202 

XVII.     The  Athenian  Constitution  under  Pericles  .         .         .217 

XVIU.     Athens  and  Athenian  Art  under  Pericles    ....     228 

9 


10  CONTENTS 


PAGE 


CHAPTER 

XIX.     Intellectual  Culture  in  the  Age  of  Pericles       .        .        .242 
XX.     Social  Culture,  Life  and  Manners 251 

PERIOD  V.     The  Fall  of  the  Athenian  Empire 
(431-359  B.C.) 

XXI.     The  Peloponnesian  War 263 

XXII.     The  Later  Struggles  for  Supremacy  ....     277 

XXIII.  The  New  Phase  of  Greek  Culture 287 

THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

PERIOD  VI.     The  Union  of  Greece  and  the  Orient 
(359-229  B.C.) 

XXIV.  Macedonia  and  Greece  under  Philip         ....     299 
XXV.     Alexander  and  the  Conquest  of  the  East  .         .         .     307 

XXVI.     Greek  Culture  and  the  Eastern  World      .         .         .         .320 

PERIOD  VII.     The  Union  of  Greece  and  the  Occident 

(229-146  B.C.) 

XXVII.     Macedonia  and  the  Greek  Federations      ....     334 

XXVIII.     The  Absorption  of  Hellas  by  Rome  ....     340 

XXIX.     Greek  Culture  and  the  Western  World    .         .        .         .346 

APPENDIX— List  of  Books  upon  Oriental  and  Greek  History         .     355 
INDEX 367 


LIST   OF   COLORED   MAPS 


PROGRESSIVE 
MAPS 


No.  1.    Ancient  Oriental  Peoples 20 

No.  2.    Greece  and  the  Orient,  about  1250  B.c 68 

No.  3.  Hellas  and  the  Hellenes,  after  the  Dorian  Migration    .        .       80 

No.  4.  Greater  Hellas,  Sixth  Century  e.g.  (Colonization)       .      1.36,  137 

No.  5.  Eastern  Nations  before  the  Lydian  and  Persian  Conquests      166 

No.  6.  Persian  Empire  under  Darius,  about  500  B.C.       .         .         .170 

No.  7.  The  Athenian  Empire :  Greatest  Extent,  about  450  b.c.     214,215 

No.  8.    Peloponnesian  War,  431-404  b.c 262 

No,  9.    Empire  of  Alexander  the  Great,  .323  b.c 308 

No.  10.  Divisions  of  the  Empire  of  Alexander,  301  b.c.   .         .         .     316 

The  -^tolian  and  Achaean  Leagues,  about  229  b.c 330 


OUTLINES  OF  GREEK  HISTORY 

WITH  A  EEVIEW   OF   ORIENTAL   NATIONS 
CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTION. —THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   HISTORY 

I.    The  Subject-matter  of  History 

History  and  Civilization.  — The  subject  of  our  present  study 
is  the  history  of  ancient  Greece  —  with  a  review  of  the  earlier 
peoples  of  the  East,  by  whom  the  Greeks  were  more  or  4ess 
influenced.  But  to  understand  the  history  of  any  people,  it  is 
necessary  first  of  all  to  have  some  idea  of  what  we  mean  by 
"  history."  Our  first  idea  of  history  is  the  simple  notion  that 
it  deals  with  the  past.  But  there  are  many  peoples  who  have 
lived  and  x^assed  away,  and  many  events  which  have  taken 
place,  that  have  little  or  no  historical  importance.  The  mere 
study  of  antiquities  —  of  things  that  are  past  —  is  not  the 
study  of  history  in  the  proper  sense;  although  it  may  aid  us 
in  getting  a  knowledge  of  historical  facts.  History  properly 
deals  with  what  we  call  "civilization,"  or  the  progress  of  man- 
kind. It  seeks  those  facts  which  mark  this  progress,  the 
causes  which  have  led  to  it,  or  the  influences  which  have  re- 
tarded it.  A  people  which  has  contributed  something  to  the 
progress  of  mankind,  we  properly  regard  as  an  historical  peo- 
ple. The  Greeks,  for  example,  occupy  a  high  place  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  because  they  have  added  much  to  the 
world's  civilization.     . 

\\ 


12  INTRODUCTION 

Meaning  of  Civilization.  —  AVheii  we  speak  of  civilization, 
we  refer  to  a  certain  degree  of  advancement  in  the  things 
which  make  up  human  life  —  which  contribute  to  human  wel- 
fare and  to  human  happiness.  Barbarous  peoples  have  very 
few  of  the  things  which  make  life  worth  living.  They  obtain 
their  food  with  difficulty ;  their  clothing  is  scanty ;  and  their 
homes  are  without  comfort.  Their  social  life  is  narrow,  and 
confined  to  the  family  or  the  clan.  Their  language  is  limited. 
Their  art  is  coarse.  Their  religion  is  crude ;  and  their  moral 
ideas  are  often  low  and  groveling.  In  short,  they  do  not  pos- 
sess what  we  call  civilization.  Civilization  means  a  certain 
degree  of  progress  in  some  or  all  of  these  phases  of  human 
existence.  It  is  a  movement  away  from  barbarism  in  the 
direction  of  a  higher  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  life. 

Elements  of  Civilization.  —  We  may  perhaps  get  a  clearer  idea 
of  what  is  meant  by  civilization,  if  we  look  at  some  of  the  ele- 
ments which  make  it  up,  and  which  we  should  constantly  keep 
in  mind  as  we  study  the  history  of  any  people.  It  is  by  these 
features,  or  marks,  that  we  are  able  to  judge  whether  a  nation 
is  more  or  less  civilized. 

The  first  mark  of  civilization  is  the  improvement  of  the 
means  of  subsistence  —  the  getting  of  better  food,  of  more  com- 
fortable clothing  and  habitations.  The  primitive  life  of  hunt- 
ing and  fishing  gives  way  to  the  domestication  of  animals,  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  to  the  manufacture  of  various  prod- 
ucts, and  to  the  exchange  of  these  products  with  other  peoples  ; 
that  is,  to  the  growth  of  industry  and  commerce. 

Another  mark  of  civilization  is  the  growth  of  social  and 
political  institutions.  The  family  grows  into  the  clan  ;  the  clan 
into  the  tribe;  and  the  tribe  into  the  state.  The  relations 
between  men,  also,  become  controlled  less  and  less  by  force, 
and  more  and  more  by  reason  and  law.  Governments  grow 
up,  which  protect  the  rights  of  persons  and  the  interests  of  the 
community. 

We  may  also  judge  of  the  extent  to  which  a  people  is  civil- 
ized by  the  developipent  of  itst  iQ^ngiiag^  w^d  literature.     Lan- 


THE   BEGINNINGS   OF    HISTORY  13 

guage  becomes  extended  and  enriched  by  the  growth  of  new 
words.  But  more  than  this,  words  become  reduced  to  a  written 
form.  Ideas  which  were  once  transmitted  only  from  mouth 
to  mouth  in  the  form  of  traditions,  become  fixed  in  writing 
and  in  a  permanent  literature. 

Civilization  is  still  further  marked  by  the  growth  of  philos- 
ophy and  science;  that  is,  by  the  development  of  a  spirit  of 
inquiry.  The  world  of  nature  appears  to  the  barbarian  as  an 
insoluble  mystery ;  to  the  civilized  man,  it  appears  more  and 
more  to  be  a  world  of  order  and  governed  by  law.  Hence, 
knowledge  becomes  extended  and  reduced  to  a  scientific 
form. 

Moreover,  we  may  judge  of  the  advancement  of  a  people  by 
their  progress  in  art  and  refinement.  When  men  become  civil- 
ized, they  learn  to  love  the  beautiful.  The  crude  ideas  of 
art  expressed  in  unsightly  huts,  in  grotesque  figures,  in  gaudy 
colors,  in  loud  and  discordant  noises,  become  refined  by  a  sense 
of  symmetry  and  proportion,  by  a  taste  for  subdued  colors  and 
harmonious  sounds  —  as  seen  in  the  higher  forms  of  architec- 
ture, sculpture,  painting,  and  music. 

Finally,  the  advance  of  civilization  is  shown  in  the  growth 
of  higher  ideas  regarding  religion  and  morality.  The  earlier 
religions  consist  in  the  worship  of  sticks  and  stones,  of  animals, 
of  ancestral  spirits,  and  of  the  forces  of  nature.  Their  cere- 
monies are  weird  and  elaborate,  and  are  intended  to  appease 
the  anger  of  the  gods.  But  as  civilization  advances,  religion 
becomes  more  and  more  a  simple  belief  in  one  supreme  and 
beneficent  Being,  and  an  incentive  to  a  higher  and  better  life. 
Religion  and  morality  become  united  in  a  common  love  to  God 
and  man. 

Significance  of  Historical  Facts.  —  By  keeping  before  our 
minds  these  various  elements  which  enter  into  civilization,  we 
can  better  judge  of  what  is  more  important  and  what  is  less  im- 
portant in  history.  For  example,  men  are  to  be  judged  by  the  ex- 
tent to  which  they  have  improved  their  own  people  or  the  world 
in  some  of  these  lines  of  progress.,     So,  too,  events  must  be 


14  INTRODUCTION 

regarded  as  important  according  to  their  influence  in  improving 
mankind  in  some  way  or  other.  Nations,  also,  are  to  be  judged 
in  the  same  way  —  by  the  extent  to  which  they  have  con- 
tributed to  some  of  those  elements  Avhich  make  the  world  more 
civilized.  In  studying  the  history  of  Greece,  therefore,  we 
shall  try  to  learn  not  only  what  advancement  the  Greeks  made 
upon  the  peoples  who  went  before  them,  but  also  how  far  and 
in  what  way  they  have  contributed  to  the  present  enlighten- 
ment of  the  world. 

II.     Early  Condition  of  Mankind 

The  Prehistoric  Age.  —  As  we  begin  the  study  of  history  the 
question  will  naturally  occur  to  us,  How  did  civilization  be- 
gin ?  To  this  question  no  one  can  give  a  very  satisfactory 
answer.  We  know  that  before  the  Greeks  were  civilized, 
there  were  civilizations  in  the  East  more  or  less  developed  — 
among  the  Egyptians  on  the  Nile ;  the  Babylo'nians  and  Assyr'- 
ians  on  th^  Tigris  and  Euphra'tes ;  the  Hindus  on  the  Indus 
and  the  Ganges  ;  and  the  Chinese  on  the  great  rivers  of  eastern 
Asia.  But  all  these  civilizations  must  have  grown  out  of  a 
more  primitive  condition  of  mankind — a  condition  the  knowl- 
edge of  which  is  not  contained  in  any  written  records.  This 
early  stage  of  progress  we  call  the  "  prehistoric  age."  Our 
knowledge  of  it  is  derived  largely  from  material  relics,  such 
as  stone  and  metal  implements,  cave  dwellings,  shell  heaps, 
traces  of  fire,  the  contents  of  mounds,  and  other  evidences  of 
human  existence. 

Early  Stages  of  Progress.  —  From  such  remains  of  the  pre- 
historic age  it  is  possible  to  form  some  idea  of  the  early 
progress  of  man  before  the  dawn  of  civilization.  It  is,  of 
course,  impossible  to  give  the  exact  steps  of  this  progress,  cov- 
ering as  they  do  many  thousands  of  years.  It  is  customary  to 
divide  this  long  and  obscure  period  of  prehistoric  development 
into  "  ages,"  called  the  Stone  Age  or  the  Age  of  Savagery,  and 
the  Metal  Age  or  the  Age  of  Barbarism. 


THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   HISTORY 


15 


The  Stone  Age  refers  to  the  lowest  condition  of  the  human 
race,  when  the  highest  art  was  shown  in  the  manufacture  of 
weapons  and  implements  from  stone.  Men  of  this  age  are 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  caves  at  the  time  of  animals  noAV 
extinct ;  to  have  clothed  themselves  with  the  skins  of  wild 
beasts ;  to  have  obtained  their  food  by  hunting  and  fishing ;  to 
have  satisfied  their  artistic  taste  by  personal  decorations ;  and 
to  have  worshiped  material  objects  or  animals,  which  were 
thought  to  have  the  power   of  bringing  good  or   evil.     This 


Early  Stone  Implements 

long  period  is  subdivided  into  the  Old  Stone,  or  Paleolith'ic, 
Age,  when  implements  were  made  of  rough,  stone,  and  the  New 
Stone,  or  Neolith'ic,  Age,  when  implements  w^ere  made  of 
polished  stone,  thus  showing  a  higher  degree  of  mechanical 
skill. 

The  Metal  Age  marks  a  great  step  in  human  progress,  on 
account  of  the  discovery  and  use  of  the  metals.  During  this 
age  men  began  to  live  in  artificial  dwellings ;  to  obtain  their 
food  by  the  domestication  of  animals  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  soil ;  to  clothe  themselves  wdth  fabrics  w^oven  by  the 
loom  ;  to  have  higher  ideas  of  art  in  the  way  of  ornaments  of 
silver  and  gold;  and  to  worship  the  spirits  of  their  ances- 
tors and  the  forces  of  nature,  especially  celestial  objects.    'This 


16 


INTRODUCTION 


period  is  subdivided  into  the  Bronze  Age,  when  articles  were 
made  of  copper,  or  a  mixture  of  copper  and  tin ;  and  the 
Iron  Age,  when  the  discovery  and  use  of  iron  gave  a  new 
impulse  to  the  mechanical  arts. 


Early  Metal  Implements 


Dawn  of  Civilization.  —  These  so-called  ages  can  not,  of 
course,  be  separated  from  one  another  by  any  well  marked 
lines.  They  simply  indicate  what  were  probably  the  early 
stages  of  human  development.  They  merge  into  one  another ; 
and  the  features  of  one  age  often  survive  and  continue  to  exist 
in  the  next  age,  and  sometimes  even  remain  after  the  dawn  of 
civilization.  For  convenience  we  may  say  that  civilization 
begins  with  the  use  of  a  written  language ;  and  it  is  chiefly  by 
the  use  of  written  records  that  the  progress  of  civilization  is 
traced.  But  we  must  not  think  that  there  is  any  clear  and 
definite  line  which  separates  civilization  from  barbarism ;  the 
one  succeeds  the  other  as  imperceptibly  as  day  follows  night. 

Primitive  Culture  of  Civilized  Peoples. —  It  is  evident  that  at 
the  dawn  of  civilization  men  had  already  made  some  progress 
in  their  manner  of  living,  and  already  possessed  a  certain  stock 
of  customs  and  ideas  inherited  from  their  prehistoric  ances- 
tors. They  were  living  in  artificial  dwellings,  built  of  wood 
or  of  clay  baked  in  the  sun.     They  subsisted  not  only  by  hunt- 


THE   BEGINNINGS   OF   HISTORY  17 

ing  and  fisliiug,  but  also  by  the  rearing  of  flocks  and  herds,  by 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  by  exchanging  their  products 
with  one  another.  They  had  the  use  of  fire  and  cooked  their 
food;  they  made  utensils  of  clay,  and  also  of  metals  such  as 
copper,  tin,  iron,  gold,  and  silver.  They  had  a  simple  govern- 
ment, consisting  of  a  chief,  a  council  of  elders,  and  perhaps  a 
general  assembly.  Their  knowledge  was  restricted  mostly  to 
the  practical  affairs  of  life,  and  they  recorded  their  ideas  in  the 
form  of  picture  writing.  Their  art  was  shown  in  articles  of 
personal  adornment,  in  crude  graven  images,  and  in  simple 
decoration  of  their  implements.  Their  religion  consisted 
mostly  in  the  worship  of  ancestors  and  the  forces  of  nature,  in 
weird  ceremonies  and  in  mythical  stories  about  the  gods. 
With  a  primitive  stock  of  culture  such  as  this,  the  civilized 
nations  of  the  world  may  be  said  to  have  begun  their  career. 
But  the  degree  of  advancement  made  upon  this  early  culture 
has  differed  greatly  among  the  different  divisions  of  the  human 
race. 

III.     Divisions  of  the  Human  Race 

Unity  and  Diversity  of  Mankind.  —  It  is  generally  believed 
that  all  the  peoples  of  the  world  have  had  a  common  origin. 
But  at  what  time  man  first  appeared  upon  the  earth,  and  how 
the  different  parts  of  the  earth  were  first  peopled,  no  one  can 
tell.  We  find  at  the  beginning  of  the  historical  period  men 
living  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  world,  and  separated  into 
different  groups,  which  are  more  or  less  distinct  from  one  an- 
other. So  while  men  may  have  had  a  common  origin,  they 
have,  in  the  process  of  time,  become  broken  up  into  various 
races  and  peoples;  and  these  different  races  and  peoples  have 
shown  very  different  degrees  of  capacity  for  development. 

Classification  by  Physical  Features.  —  Many  attempts  have 
been  made  to  find  a  scientific  method  of  distinguishing  the 
different  races  of  men.  They  have,  for  example,  been 
classified  according  to  color,  into  the  White  or  Caucasian  race, 
the  Black  or  ISTegro  race,  and  the  Yellow  or  Mongolian  race. 
morey's  greek  hist.  — 2 


18  INTRODUCTION 

They  have  also  been  classified  according  to  the  shape  of  the 
head,  the  texture  of  the  hair,  and  other  physical  features. 
But  scholars  are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  the  best  and  most 
scientific  method  of  making  the  race  distinctions  of  mankind. 

Classification  by  Language.  —  The  most  ordinary  and  conven- 
ient way  of  classifying  men  is  by  the  languages  which  they 
speak.  It  is  true  that  language  is  not  a  perfect  means  of  dis- 
tinguishing races;  because  some  peoples  have  been  known  to 
adopt  the  language  of  another.  But  it  is  also  generally  true 
that  in  adopting  the  language  of  another  people  they  have  also 
adopted  the  manners  and  civilization  of  that  other  people. 
And  so,  while  a  common  language  may  not  always  indicate  a 
common  race  origin,  it  does  generally  indicate  a  common  his- 
torical development.  In  studying  the  growth  of  civilization, 
therefore,  we  may  consider  the  peoples  of  the  world  as  divided 
into  groups,  corresponding  to  the  different  languages  which 
they  speak. ^ 

The  Historical  Peoples.  —  The  various  peoples  of  the  world, 
distinguished  as  they  are  by  different  languages,  also  differ 
greatly  in  their  historical  importance.     The  peoples  who  have 

1  The  various  languages  of  the  world,  and  the  most  important  peoples 
speaking  them,  may  be  grouped  as  follows:  — 
I.  Monosyllabic  (in  which  each  word  consists  of  a  single  root,  without 

inflections), —Chinese,  Siamese,  Burmese. 
II.  Agglutinative  (in  which  two  or  more  roots  are  joined  in  a  single  word, 
which  is  not  inflected) ,  —  American  aborigines,  Hungarians,  Turks. 
III.   Inflected  (in  which  a  word  usually  consists  of  a  root  the  meaning  of 
which  may  be  variously  modified  by  means  of  inflectional  endings), 
comprising:  — 

1.  Hamit'ic,  —  Egyptians,  Lib'yans,  Ethio'pians. 

2.  Semz^'ic,  — Hebrews,  Babylonians,  Assyrians,  Phceni'cians,  Arabians. 

3.  Indo-European,  or  Ar'yan,  comprising:  — 

(1)  Indie, — peoples  of  India. 

(2)  Iran'ic,  —  Medes,  Persians.  ' 

(3)  Ilellen'ic, — peoples  of  Greece  and  western  Asia  Minor. 

(4)  /faric,  —  ancient  Romans  and  their  historical  descendants, 

the  Italians,  French,  Spaniards,  Portngnese. 

(5)  <S7«uon,'ic.  — Russians,  Bohemians,  Bulgarians,  Poles. 
(())   Te?/«ow'?c,  — Germans,  Scandinavians,  English. 

(7)   Celtic,  —  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles  and  Gaul. 


ANCIENT    ORIENTAL   NATIONS 

CHAPTER   II 

THE   FAR   EASTERN   COUNTRIES  —  CHINA   AND   INDIA 
I.     China  and  the  Chinese 

Historical  Significance  of  China.  —  In  tracing  the  early  prog- 
ress of  mankind  before  the  time  of  the  Greeks,  we  begin  with 
the  countries  of  the  Far  East.  We  do  this  not  because  these 
countries  were  the  first  to  emerge  from  barbarism,  and  not  be- 
cause they  have  exercised  a  great  influence  upon  the  rest  of 
the  world  —  but  for  the  simple  reason  that  we  can  see  in  them 
the  best  type  of  a  very  early  civilization.  Especially  is  this 
true  of  China.  Secluded  as  it  has  been  in  the  remote  parts  of 
Asia,  China  has  been  little  affected  by  foreign  influences.  It 
arose  from  the  condition  of  barbarism  by  its  own  unaided 
efforts.  The  arts  and  customs  which  it  developed  in  the  early 
periods  of  its  history  have  been  preserved  with  few  changes 
down  to  our  own  day.  We  may  therefore  see  in  China  to- 
day a  very  primitive  phase  of  civilized  society.  It  has  been 
said  that  "  of  all  the  states  that  created  the  rudiments  of  indus- 
try, art,  and  science,  China  alone  has  survived'"  (Letourneau). 

The  Mongolian  Settlements  in  China.  —  The  early  traditions 
of  China  reach  back  to  nearly  3000  B.C.,  and  the  mythical 
history  covers  many  thousands  of  years  before  that  time. 
But  we  need  not  trouble  ourselves  about  Chinese  chronology, 
dealing  as  it  does  with  dates  and  dynasties  upon  which  we  can 
place  little  reliance.     It  is  enough  for  us  to  know  at  present 

21 


22 


ANCIENT   ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


the  general  way  in  which  China  was  settled,  and  how  it  passed 
from  barbarism  to  an  early  form  of  civilization.  To  trace  the 
course  of  the  Mongolian  settlements  in  China,  we  should  notice 
the  position  of  the  two  great  rivers  —  the  Ho'ang  or  Yellow 
Eiver  toward  the  north,  and  the  Yangtze  toward  the  south. 
The  valleys  of  these  rivers  were  already  occupied  by  an 
obscure  aboriginal  people  before  the  Chinese  made  their  first 
appearance.  It  seems  quite  clear  that  the  Chinese  came  from  the 
central  part  of  Asia,  and  first  settled  upon  the  head  waters 

of  the  Hoang.  After- 
ward they  pushed 
down  the  course  of 
this  river  and  made 
more  permanent  set- 
tlements about  its 
mouth.  Here  they  de- 
veloped some  of  the 
arts  of  civilized  life. 
From  the  Hoang  River 
they  spread  to  the 
south  and  occupied 
the  great  valley  of  the 
Yangtze,  conquering  or  driving  out  the  native  inhabitants,  and 
becoming  the  predominant  race.  They  rapidly  increased  in 
numbers,  so  that  in  time  China  became  the  most  populous 
country  of  the  globe. 

Chinese  Industry  and  Art.  —  The  Chinese  traditions  refer  to 
a  time  when  the  people  were  in  a  condition  of  utter  bar- 
barism—  a  horde  of  wanderers  roving  among  the  forests, 
"  without  houses,  without  clothing,  without  fire  to  dress  their 
victuals,  and  subsisting  upon  the  chase,  eked  out  with  roots 
and  insects "  (Douglass).  These  traditions  also  refer  to  the 
origin  of  many  of  the  industrial  arts  —  the  discovery  of  fire 
by  the  accidental  friction  of  two  pieces  of  dry  wood  ;  the  first 
attempt  to  build  houses  by  intertwining  the  boughs  of 
trees ;    the  discovery  of  the  process  of  smelting  and  forging 


Settlement  of  China 
Successive  seats,  I,  II,  III 


THE  FAR  EASTERN  COUNTRIES 


23 


iron  ;    the  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree  ;  and  the  manufac- 
ture and  weaving  of  silk. 

Whatever  truth  there  may,  or  may  not,  be  in  these  traditions, 
it  is  quite  certain  that  when  the  Chinese  settled  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Hoang,  they  passed  from  a  nomadic  to  an  agri- 
cultural people.  They  learned  to  live  not  only  upon  their 
flocks   and   herds,  but   also   upon  the   products    of   the    soil. 


The  Great  Wall  of  China 


They  also  learned  to  drain  the  flooded  districts,  to  build  canals 
and  roads.  They  constructed  wooden  buildings  fashioned 
after  the  form  of  their  primitive  tents,  which  form  was  after- 
ward preserved  to  a  certain  extent  in  their  temples  and 
pagodas.  Although  not  distinguished  as  great  architects, 
they  yet  constructed  one  of  the  greatest  monuments  of  human 
industry  —  the  Great  Wall  of  China,  fifteen  hundred  miles 
long,  intended  to  protect  the  northern  frontiers  from  invasions. 
They  also  became  in  time  an  ingenious  and  inventive  people. 


24  ANCIENT   ORIENTAL   NATIONS 

They  are  said  to  have  possessed  the  use  of  paper,  of  movable 
type,  of  gunpowder,  and  of  the  mariner's  compass  before  these 
articles  were  used  or  known  by  the  western  nations.  They 
have  also  shown  great  skill  and  some  taste  in  certain  forms  of 
art.  Their  deftness  is  especially  seen  in  the  manufacture  of 
silken  fabrics,  in  ivory  carvings,  and  in  porcelain  wares. 

Chinese  Society  and  Government.  —  As  in  their  industrial  arts, 
so  in  their  society  and  government  the  Chinese  show  the 
marks  of  an  early  stage  of  development.  The  family  is 
regarded  as  the  first  form  of  civilized  society;  and  "the 
Chinaman  still  adheres  closely  to  that  first  stage  in  which  the 
organization  of  human  society  begins ''  (Peschel).  The  family 
grew  into  the  clan,  or  village  community,  governed  by  the 
fathers  of  the  different  households.  So  strongly  does  the  idea 
of  the  family  influence  the  Chinese  that  the  whole  empire  is 
looked  upon  as  a  great  household,  and  the  emperor  is  revered 
as  the  father  of  his  people. 

Chinese  Religion  and  Morality.  —  Like  the  government,  the 
religion  of  China  is  also  closely  linked  to  the  early  family 
organization.  It  consists  largely  of  the  worship  of  ancestors. 
Filial  piety  and  reverence  for  the  dead  form  a  great  part  of  the 
moral  and  religious  life  of  the  people.  As  the  father  performs 
the  religious  rites  for  the  family,  so  the  emperor  performs  the 
religious  rites  for  the  nation.  He  is  regarded  as  the  Son  of 
Heaven,  and  Heaven  is  the  Father  of  all. 

The  early  religion  of  China  was  mixed  with  many  super- 
stitions. But  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  before 
Christ,  appeared  a  great  teacher,  Confu'cius  (born  551  e.g.), 
who  tried  to  purify  the  religious  ideas  of  his  people.  He 
taught  in  a  simple  way  the  most  important  and  common  duties 
of  life.  He  taught  that  "  you  should  not  do  to  others  what  you 
would  not  have  others  do  to  you."  It  may  be  said  that  Con- 
fucius and  his  system  mark  the  highest  point  reached  by  the 
Chinese  mind.  Another  teacher,  called  La'o-tse,  lived  about 
the  same  time  as  Confucius,  and  taught  a  more  philosophical 
system  of  religion  —  Ta'oism.    But  this,  being  less  intelligible, 


THE  FAR   EASTERN  COUNTRIES  25 

did  not  take  so  strong  a  hold  upon  the  people.  Afterward  a 
Hindu  religion  —  Buddhism  —  was  introduced  from  India. 
The  Chinaman  may  thus  be  said  to  have  three  religions  from 
which  to  choose,  although  they  are  all  frequently  professed 
by  the  same  person.  The  Chinese  never  gained  a  high  concep- 
tion of  the  Supreme  Being.  But  they  hold  up  a  high  standard 
of  moral  duty  —  a  standard  which,  as  is  the  case  with  many 
other  people,  is  considerably  higher  than  their  practice. 

Chinese  Language  and  Literature.  —  Like  the  other  phases  of 
Chinese  culture,  the  language  indicates  an  early  stage  of 
growth.  The  language  is  monosyllabic.  The  writing  is 
developed  from  a  crude  form  of  picture  writing,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  ancient  and  modern  forms  :  — 

Sun  Moon      Mountain      Tree  Dog'  Horse  Man 

0    ti    lU  1^  :)^  ^)  A 


Modern 


These  characters  have  generally  no  phonetic  elements ;  that 
is,  they  do  not  usually  represent  sounds,  but  things  or  ideas. 
They  have  grown  to  be  very  numerous  (25,000  or  more),  and 
are  often  united  to  represent  complex  ideas.  In  such  rude 
characters  as  these  the  Chinese  literature  is  written.  The  most 
important  literature  consists  of  the  Five  Classics  and  the  Four 
Books.  The  former  were  either  written  or  edited  by  Confucius ; 
and  the  latter  were  written  by  his  disciples,  the  most  distin- 
guished of  whom  was  Mencius.  These  works  form  the  basis  of 
Chinese  education.  To  be  familiar  with  them  is  to  be  considered 
wise  and  learned.  Candidates  for  public  office  must  pass  a 
competitive  examination  in  these  ancient  books  to  show  their 
fitness  for  public  life.  The  civil  service  is  thus  based  upon 
education. 

From  what  has  been  said  we  can  see  that  the  people  of 
China  are  bound  to  the  past  and  isolated  from  the  present. 


26  ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 

From  the  earliest  times  it  has  been  the  policy  of  this  people  to 
exclude  from  their  land  all  foreigners  and  all  foreign  influences. 
On  this  account  they  have  remained  a  stagnant  nation,  scarcely 
affected  by  those  movements  which  have  changed  the  rest  of 
the  world.  Not  only  do  their  arts  and  customs,  their  society, 
government,  and  religion  preserve  the  marks  of  a  primitive 
civilization,  but  their  ideas  and  intellectual  culture  are  fashioned 
upon  the  wisdom  of  the  ancients ;  and  their  highest  ambition 
is  to  follow  the  precept  of  Confucius,  "to  walk  in  the  beaten 
paths." 

II.     India  and  the  Hindus 

Beginning  of  Aryan  Civilization.  —  As  we  pass  from  China  to 
India,  we  see  the  early  stages  of  a  far  greater  civilization  than 
that  of  the  Mongolians ;  namely,  that  of  the  Aryans,  or  Indo- 
Europeans.-^  When  we  consider  the  fact  that  the  most  ad- 
vanced nations  of  the  world  to-day  are  peoples  who  speak  Indo- 
European  languages,  we  may  look  with  special  interest  upon 
the  first  attempt  of  an  Indo-European  people  to  lift  themselves 
above  the  plane  of  barbarism.  By  the  aid  of  language  it  is 
inferred  that  before  their  migration,  the  early  Indo-European 
people  had  already  passed  out  of  the  Stone  Age,  and  were  ac- 
quainted with  the  use  of  some  of  the  metals.  They  were  a 
pastoral  people,  having  domesticated  the  cow,  the  horse,  and 

1  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  '  that  when  'we  speak  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo- 
European  peoples  (including  the  Hindus,  the  Persians,  the  Greeks,  the 
Romans,  the  Slavs,  the  Germans,  and  the  Celts),  we  do  not  mean  that  they 
are  descended  from  the  same  stock  — a  theory  once  held,  but  now  disproved 
by  recent  anthropological  discoveries.  We  simply  mean  that  these  peoples 
speak  languages  derived  from  the  same  ancient  tongue,  and  possess  a  civiliza- 
tion derived  probably  from  a  common  primitive  culture.  Scholars  are  not 
agreed  as  to  where  was  the  original  home  of  the  Aryan-speaking  people.  It 
was  formerly  thought  to  have  been  somewhere  in  central  Asia.  It  is  now 
thought  to  have  been  somewhere  in  Europe,  perhaps  in  southern  Russia,  per- 
haps on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  The  "  Aryan  question  "  has  been  largely  a 
dispute  resulting  from  different  points  of  view  —that  of  language  and  culture 
held  by  philologists  and  historians,  and  that  of  race  affiliation  held  by  an- 
thropologists. No  scholars  now  hold  that  a  common  language  is  necessarily 
an  indication  of  a  common  descent. 


THE  FAR  EASTERN  COUNTRIES 


27 


the  sheep,  and  were  beginning  to  cultivate  the  soil.  They  used 
fire  in  cooking  their  food,  and  understood  the  arts  of  weaving 
and  sewing,  and  dressed  themselves  in  cloth  garments.  They 
were  organized  in  families  and  village  communities,  and  recog- 
nized the  authority  of  a  village  chief  and  a  council  of  elders. 
They  worshiped  not  only  their  ancestors,  but  the  objects  of 
nature  —  the  heaven,  the  sun,  the  dawn,  the  clouds,  the  earth, 
fire,  etc.,  which  were  personified  and  made  the  subjects  of  many 
mythical  stories.  Chief  among  the  objects  of  the  worship  was 
the  overarching  Heaven,  which  was  looked  upon  as  the  Father 
of  all,  and  long  continued  to  be  called  the  Heaven-Father  — 
Dyaus-pitar  by  the  Hindus,  Zeus-pater  by  the  Greeks,  and 
Jupiter  by  the  Eomans. 

The  Aryan  Settlements  in  India.  —  With  a  culture  such  as  this, 
a  part  of  the  Aryan  people  migrating  from  their  original  home 
—  wherever  that  may 


have  been  —  passed 
through  central  Asia 
and  settled  in  India. 
The  progress  of  their 
settlements  here  bears 
some  likeness  to  the 
Mongolian  settle- 
ments in  China.  As 
in  China,  so  in  India 
we  have  two  great 
river  systems  which 
formed  successive 
seats  of  occuj^ation; 
these  are  the  Indus 
and  the  Ganges.  The  first  settlement  of  the  Aryan  Hindus  was 
upon  the  head  waters  of  the  Indus,  in  the  region  watered  by 
the  five  branches  of  this  river,  and  called  the  Punjab.  Here 
the  Hindus  improved  in  their  arts  of  living,  communed  with 
nature,  developed  a  strong  religious  spirit,  and  composed 
hymns  in  honor  of  the  gods  of  nature  —  hymns  still  preserved, 


loo~43o 


^\J 


Settlement  of  India 
Successive  seats,  I,  II,  III 


28  ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 

in  the  "  Vedas,"  the  oldest  literature  of  India.  From  the  Indus 
and  the  land  of  the  Vedas,  the  Hindus  spread  into  the  valley 
of  the  G-anges,  which  formed  the  second  seat  of  their  settlement. 
The  movement  from  the  Indus  to  the  Ganges  was  marked  by 
a  long  period  of  conflict  with  the  aboriginal  tribes.  As  a 
result  of  this  period  of  strife  the  warriors  became  honored  next 
to  the  priests.  The  distinction  between  the  classes  of  society 
became  more  strongly  marked,  and  a  severe  caste  system  was 
developed.  This  system  comprised  four  distinct  classes :  (1)  the 
priests,  or  Brahmans;  (2)  the  warriors,  or  Ksha'triyas;  (3)  the 
farmers,  or  Vais'yas;  (4)  the  servile  population,  or  Sudras, 
which  class  comprised  the  mass  of  the  conquered  peoples. 
Below  these  were  the  outcasts,  or  Pa'riahs.  From  the  Ganges, 
the  Hindus  afterward  spread  over  the  remaining  parts  of  India, 
conquering  and  absorbing  the  native  inhabitants ;  so  that  the 
Hindus  of  the  south  became  somewhat  different  from  those  of 
the  north.  Although  the  Hindus  cultivated  industry  and  com- 
merce, their  civilization  was  marked  especially  by  thought 
/  rather  than  action,  —  by  literature,  philosophy,  religious  specu- 
lation, and  ethical  |)recepts. 

The  "  Vedas ' '  and  Hindu  Literature.  —  The  thought  of  the  Hin- 
dus was  first  put  into  literary  form  in  the  "Vedas."  These  con- 
sisted of  sacred  writings,  expressed  in  the  Sanskrit  language, 
the  most  ancient  written  form  of  Aryan  speech.  This  lan- 
guage is  highly  inflective,  having  eight  cases,  and  is  capable 

First  Stanza  of  the  "Rig-Veda" 

of  expressing  fine  feeling  and  subtle  distinctions  of  thought. 
Of  the  sacred  writings  the  most  interesting  and  probably  the 
oldest  is  the  "Big-Veda."  This  collection  consists  of  more 
than  a  thousand  hymns  addressed  to  the  gods  of  nature  —  the 
heaven  god,  Dyaus;  the  sun  god,  Vishnu;  the  fire  god,  Agni; 


THE  FAR  EASTERN  COUNTRIES  29 

the  rain  god,  Indra;  the  cloud  gods,  Maruts;  the  wine  god. 
Soma ;  and  others.  These  early  hymns  are  simple  in  language, 
sincere  in  spirit,  and  are  marked  by  an  earnest  religious  feeling. 

A  more  elaborate  form  of  literature  is  seen  in  the  two  great 
epics  —  the  "Rama'yana"  and  the  "Maha-bha'rata"  —  which 
have  been  called  "the  most  important  and  sublime  creations  of 
Hindu  literature,  and  the  most  colossal  epic  poems  to  be  found 
in  the  literature  of  the  world"  (Botta).  The  former  contains 
twenty-five  thousand  and  the  latter  two  hundred  thousand  lines. 
They  celebrate  the  heroic  deeds  of  Eama  and  Krishna,  who 
are  supposed  to  be  the  incarnations  of  the  god  Vishnu.  The 
ancient  legal  customs  of  the  Hindus  were  reduced  to  writing 
and  embodied  in  the  so-called  ''Code  of  Manu,"  the  earliest 
and  most  important  law  book  of  India. 

Brahmanism  and  Hindu  Science.  —  The  religion  of  the  Hindus 
did  not  always  remain  in  the  simple  form  of  nature  worship, 
as  held  by  the  early  Aryans  and  expressed  in  the  earlier 
Vedic  hymns.  It  grew  into  a  higher  and  more  philosophical 
form  of  nature  worship  held  by  the  priestly  class,  or  Brahmans. 
It  is  difficult  for  us,  with  our  practical  Western  ideas,  to  under- 
stand fully  this  highest  phase  of  Oriental  thought ;  but  the 
main  features  we  may  perhaps  comprehend.  The  couimon 
people  had  been  in  the  habit  of  looking  upon  the  different 
objects  of  nature,  or  the  different  parts  of  the  universe,  as  so 
many  different  gods,  endowed  with  various  human  qualities. 
The  Brahmans,  on  the  other  hand,  came  to  look  upon  the 
entire  universe  as  one  system  of  things  and  pervaded  with  a 
universal  soul.  This  universal  Deity  was  regarded  in  a  three- 
fold aspect  as  Brahma,  or  the  creator,  as  Vishnu,  or  the 
preserver,  and  as  Siva,  or  the  destroyer.  In  explaining  the 
world  about  us  the  Brahmans  believed  that  all  things  emanate 
from  the  Supreme  Being,  as  rays  emanate  from  the  sun,  or  as 
streams  flow  from  the  fountain.  When  any  particular  thing 
seems  to  pass  away,  it  really  reappears  in  some  other  thing,  as 
water  passes  into  vapor,  or  as  the  soul  of  one  man  was  thought 
to  pass  into  another  man  or  into  an  animal  ("transmigration"). 


30  ANCIENT   ORIENTAL   NATIONS 

It  is  evident  that  such  ideas  as  these  would  be  difficult  for  the 
common  people  to  grasp ;  and  so  Brahmanism  became  the 
religion  of  the  priests,  who  alone  possessed  religious  knowledge, 
and  under  whose  direction  the  complicated  rites  and  ceremo- 
nies were  performed. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  out  of  this  complex  religious 
system  and  the  scrupulous  care  with  which  its  rites  were 
performed,  grew  the  various  forms  of  Hindu  science.  That 
the  ceremonies  might  take  place  at  exactly  the  proper  times, 
the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies  were  observed^  which  led 
to  the  rudiments  of  astronomy.  That  the  altars  might  be 
properly  constructed,  rules  of  measurement  were  laid  down, 
from  which  geometry  was  developed  ;  and  the  necessity  of 
making  accurate  calculations  led  to  the  science  of  arithmetic, 
which  was  based  upon  the  decimal  notation.  Thus  it  came 
about  that  the  Brahmans  became  not  only  the  priestly,  but  the 
learned  class  of  India,  and  the  highest  expounders  of  Hindu 
thought. 

Buddhism  and  Hindu  Architecture.  —  The  religion  of  Brahman- 
ism was  philosophical,  priestly,  ritualistic,  and  exclusive.  In 
opposition  to' this  complicated  system  there  grew  up  in  India 
a  new  and  simpler  form  of  religion.  Its  founder  was  Gau'taraa, 
or  Buddha  as  he  is  more  generally  called.  This  great  and 
good  man  (born  557  b.c.)  believed  that  true  religion  does  not 
consist  in  philosophy,  in  ceremonies  and  penances,  but  in  an 
upright  and  sinless  life,  and  that  this  kind  of  life  is  open  to 
all,  the  lowest  as  well  as  the  highest,  the  outcast  as  well  as  the 
Brahman.  His  ideal  of  life  was  the  attainment  of  perfection 
by  self-culture,  and  was  taught  in  such  maxims  as  these : 
"  Sweeter  than  the  scent  of  sandalwood  is  the  perfume  of 
noble  acts."  "  The  fault  of  others  is  easily  seen,  but  that  of 
ourselves  is  difficult  to  see."  "Let  one  overcome  anger  by 
love ;  let  one  overcome  evil  with  good."  Many  of  the  disciples 
of  Buddha  separated  themselves  from  the  world  and  lived  in 
monasteries;  they  relinquished  luxury,  and  shared  their  goods 
in  common.     The  pure  life  of  Buddha  became  the  ideal  of  his 


THE   FAR   EASTERN  COUNTRIES  31 

followers,  and  at  his  death  he  was  worshiped  as  a  divine 
being. 

As  Brahmanism  led  to  the  growth  of  Hindu  science,  so 
Buddhism  led  to  the  development  of  Hindu  architecture.  Be- 
fore the  Buddhist  period  it  is  said  that  building  in  stone  was 
restricted  mostly  to  city  walls,  embankments,  and  bridges. 
But  the  monastic  system  of  the  Buddhists  required  large 
buildings  for  the  accommodation  of  monks  and  nuns,  and 
these  came  to  be  extensive  and  built  of  stone.  Temples,  also, 
were  dug  out  of  the  solid  rock.  These  cave  temples  exhibit 
many  artistic  features  in  the  form  of  columns  and  sculptured 
designs.  Although  Buddhism  was  finally  driven  out  of  India 
by  the  revival  of  Brahmanism,  and  took  refuge  in  Ceylon, 
China,  and  other  countries,  the  architectural  monuments  of  the 
Buddhist  period  still  remain  in  India,  and  have  greatly  influ- 
enced the  art  of  the  people. 

The  Influence  of  India.  —  Unlike  China,  India  has  not  been 
entirely  isolated,  but  has  been  brought  into  some  relation 
to  other  countries.  Its  ideas  are  supposed  to  have  exercised 
some  influence  up^n  E^ypt  and  indirectly  upon  Gr££jee.  Its 
commercial  products  early  attracted  the  attention  of  foreign 
merchants.  Its  silks,  precious  stones,  and  spices  have  fur- 
nished articles  of  luxury  for  other  peoples.  Its  decimal  system 
is  now  used  by  nearly  all  civilized  countries.  From  what  has 
been  said  it  is  evident  that  India  attained  to  a  higher  civiliza- 
tion than  did  China.  But  its  culture  was  developed  chiefly 
along  the  lines  of_^hilosophy  and  religion,  and  to  a  less  extent 
in  the  direction  of  science,  art,  and  commerce. 

SELECTIONS   FOR   READING 

Boulger,  Short  History,  Ch.  1,  "The  Early  Ages"  (4).i 
Douglass,  Ch,  1,  "  Early  History  of  the  Empire  "  (4). 
Moule,  Ch.  7,  "Ancestral  \yorship  "  (4). 
Martin,  pp.  97-124,  "The  Three  Religions  of  China"  (4). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appendix, 
where  a  fullej  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


32 


ANCIENT   ORIENTAL   NATIONS 


Dutt,  Epoch  I.,  "The  Vedic  Age"  (5). 

Ragozin,  Vedic  India,  Ch.  4,  "The  Vedas"  (5). 

Wheeler,  Short  History,  Ch.  1,  "  Maha-bharata  and  the  Northwest "  (5). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

Early  Aryan  Culture. — Clodd,  Childhood  of  Religions,  Ch.  6 
(2);  Morris,  Ch.  5  (1);  Taylor,  Ch.  3  (1);  Keary,  Ch.  9  (2);  Schrader, 
Part  IV.  (2);  Ihering,  Book  I.  (1). 


CHAPTEE  III 

THE  MESOPOTAMIAN  COUNTRIES  —  BABYLONIA  AND 
ASSYRIA 


I. 


The  Early  Babylonian,  or  Chaldean  Empire 


The  Mesopotamian  Valley.  — Erom  the  early  phases  of  civiliza- 
tion which  were  developed  in  the  Ear  East,  we  now  turn  to 

another  type  of  an- 
cient culture,  which 
sprang  up  in  the  Mes- 
opota'mian  valley. 
This  was  no  doubt 
earlier  in  its  origin, 
and  it  was  certainly 
more  progressive  in 
its  character  than 
that  which  appeared 
either  in  China  or  in 
India.  It  grew  up  in 
the  valley  formed  by 
the  two  rivers,  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates.  These  rivers, 
rising  in  the  mountains  of  Arme'nia,  unite  their  waters  in  a 
single  channel  as  they  flow  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  whole 
territory  drained  by  this  double  river  system  is  known  as  the 
Tigris-Euphrates,  or  Mesopotamian  valley.     Here  we  find  the 


The  Mesopotamian  Valley 
Successive  seats  of  empire,  I,  II,  III 


THE  MESOPOTAMIAN  COUNTRIES 


33 


early  seat  of  a  distinct  form  of  culture  which  was  developed 
chiefly  by  a  Semitic  people.  This  valley  may  be  divided  into 
two  parts.  The  southern  part,  or  Babylonia,  has  its  center  at 
Bab'ylon  on  the  Euphrates ;  and  the  northern  part,  or  Assyria, 
has  its  center  at  Nin'eveh  on  the  Tigris.  These  two  capitals 
became  the  seats  of  successive  empires,  the  first  at  Babylon,  the 
second  at  Nineveh,  and  the  third  at  Babylon  again.  Although 
the  peoples  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  w^ere  mainly  Semitic,  their 
civilization  had  its  origin  in  an  earlier  people,  the  Acca'dians. 
The  Accadian  Civilization.  —  The  Accadians,  or  Sumir'ians, 
belonged  to  the  so-called  Turanian  race  —  which  simply  means 
that  they  did  not  speak  an  Aryan  or  Semitic  language. 
They  lived  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Mesopotamian  valley,  —  in 
Accad  and  Sumir,  —  and  were,  so  far  as  we  know,  the  original 
inhabitants  of  Chalde'a.^  They  had  in  very  early  times  made 
considerable  progress  in  industry  and  art.  They  lived  upon 
the  cereals,  wheat  and  barley,  that  grew  almost  spontaneously 
upon  the  fertile  soil  of  the  valley.  In  rainless  seasons  they 
cultivated  the  soil  by  means  of  irrigating  canals.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  stone  they  used,  for  their 
buildings,  bricks  of  clay,  either 
dried  in  the  sun  or  burned  in  kilns. 
They  worshiped  material  objects, 
which  were  supposed  to  be  pos- 
sessed with  spirits  ;  and  they  espe- 
cially revered  the  sun  and  moon 
and  other  celestial  bodies.  They 
built  temple  towers  constructed  in 
the  form  of  terraces,  or  a  succes- 
sion of  stories  of  diminishing  size, 
reaching  toward  heaven.  They  also  transformed  their  ancient 
picture  writing  into  characters  made  by  wedge-shaped  strokes 


i 


iflfmnn^ 


Form  of  the  Temple  Tower 


1  The  name  Chaldea  was  at  first  applied  to  a  district  in  southern  Baby- 
lonia ;  but  afterward  Chaldea  and  Babylonia  became  practically  synonymous 
terms.  The  early  Babylonian  monarchy  is  often  called  by  way  of  distinction 
the  "Chaldeap." 


34  ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 

(cune'iform),  which  were  afterward  adopted  by  their  succes- 
sors. E-ecent  discoveries  seem  to  indicate  that  the  Accadian 
civilization  reaches  back  to  at  least  four  thousand  years  before 
Christ. 

Rise  of  the  Early  Babylonian  Empire.  —  The  Accadians  were 
conquered  by  Semitic  tribes,  who  came  perhaps  from  Arabia 
and  s]3read  over  the  whole  of  the  Mesopotamian  valley.  The 
newcomers  were  a  nomadic,  uncivilized  people ;  and  while 
they  preserved  their  own  language,  they  gradually  adopted 
the  higher  culture  of  the  Accadians,  including  the  cuneiform 
method  of  writing.  Chaldea  thus  possessed  a  mixed  popula- 
tion. Its  towns  gradually  became  united  with  those  of  Accad 
and  Sumir  under  a  common  authority.  A  government  was 
established  first  at  Ur  and  then  at  Babylon,  which  in  time 
became  the  seat  of  an  extensive  empire.  During  the  early 
period  other  nations,  like  the  E'lamites,  came  into  temporary 
possession  of  Babylon,  but  were  finally  expelled.  Under  the 
rule  of  many  kings  —  chief  among  whom  were  Sargon  I.,  the 
"Babylonian  Solomon"  and  Hammura'bi,  the  great  builder, 
warrior,  and  lawgiver  of  early  Babylon,  —  the  empire  ex- 
tended its  frontiers  and  developed  the  arts  of  a  civilized 
society. 

Until  lately  our  knowledge  of  the  early  Babylonians  was 
obtained  chiefly  from  the  Greek  historian  Herod'otus  and  the 
Chaldean  priest  Bero'sus.  But  the  inscriptions  unearthed  in 
recent  years  have  given  us  new  knowledge  regarding  their 
myths,  their  kings,  their  conquests,  and  their  customs.  Their 
myths  contain  many  stories  which  correspond  to  those  re- 
corded in  the  Hebrew  writings,  relating  to  the  Garden  of 
Eden,  the  Deluge,  the  Tower  of  Babel,  and  the  confusion  of 
tongues. 

Chaldean  Writing  and  Records.  —  We  have  already  noticed  that 
the  cuneiform  or  peculiar  wedge-shaped  characters  employed 
in  writing  were  first  used  by  the  Accadians.  The  origin  of 
this  form  of  writing  is  very  curious,  and  illustrates  the  influ- 
ence of   external  conditions   iipon  human  progress.     As  the 


THE  MESOPOTAMIAN  COUNTRIES 


35 


Chaldean  Char- 
acter FOR  Fish 


temples  were  made  of  bricks  of  clay  for  the  want  of  other 
building  material,  so  for  the  want  of  other  writing  material 
bricks  or  tablets  of  clay  were  used  for  this  purpose  also.  The 
tablets  were  marked  by  means  of  a  triangu- 
lar-pointed stylus,  or  chisel,  by  a  succession 
of  strokes,  and  these  strokes  took  a  wedge- 
shaped  form.  This  chiseling  by  successive 
strokes  was  first  used  in  picture  writing,  as 
is  seen  in  this  representation  of  a  fish.  Such 
picture  writing  was  gradually  changed  into  symbols  drawn  by 
the  same  process,  and  used  to  denote  more  abstract  ideas,  like 
goodness,  brightness,  etc.,  and  a  complicated  system  of  cunei- 
form characters  was  thus  developed. 

This  peculiar  and  complex  method  of  writing  invented  by 
the  Accadians  and  adopted  b}^  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians 
was  for  a  long  time  an  unknown  language  to  modern  scholars. 
It  was  finally  deciphered  from  the  "Behistun'  inscription''  — 
an  inscription  carved  upon  a  rock  of 
the  Behistun  Mountain,  and  expressed 
in  three  languages  —  the  Persian,  Me- 
dian, and  Assyrian.  By  the  aid  of  the 
Persian,  which  was  known,  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  cuneiform  characters  was 
discovered.  By  this  means  other  in- 
scriptions could  be  read,  on  which  were 
recorded  the  names  of  kings  and  dy- 
nasties, the  events  of  the  monarchy, 
the  myths  of  the  people ;  so  that  the 
deciphering  of  the  Behistun  inscription 
added  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  this 
ancient  civilization. 

Chaldean  Religion  and  Temples. — 
Like  all  early  peoples,  the  Chaldeans 
were  deeply  imbued  with  religious  ideas,  tainted,  however, 
with  a  large  amount  of  superstition.  Their  religion  was  de- 
rived largely  from  the  Accadians,  but  modified  by  Semitic  influ- 


Ilia*® 


i&i» 


irlP=!^ 


f 


An  Inscription  in  Cunei- 
form Characters 


MOREY  S   GREEK    HIST. 


—  3 


36 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


Chaldean  Goddess,  Ishtar 

(From  an  Assyrian  cylinder) 


ences.  According  to  the  old  Accadian  religion,  every  object 
had  its  spirit,  good  or  bad,  and  these  spirits  could  be  con- 
trolled only  by  the  priests  and  sorcerers  through  charms  and 
magic  rites,  which  fact  led  to  the  growth  of  a  priestly  class. 
The  early  Babylonian  or  Chaldean  religion  was  an  elaborate 

system  of  polytheism.  There 
were  principal  gods  and  sub- 
ordinate gods ;  gods  terres- 
trial and  gods  celestial ; 
general  gods  and  local  gods, 
almost  every  town  and  vil- 
lage being  under  the  protec- 
tion of  its  own  deity ;  tliere 
were  also  masculine  divin- 
ities and  feminine  divinities. 
A  special  importance  was  at- 
tached to  the  worship  of 
celestial  objects  —  the  spirit  of  the  heaven,  the  sun,  the  moon, 
and  the  five  then  known  planets,  which  were  supposed  to  exer- 
cise an  important  influence  upon  human  affairs.  This  fact 
seems  to  have  led  to  the  construction  of  temples  like  towers 
according  to  the  Accadian  custom,  that  men  might  come  into 
closer  relation  to  heaven  and  the  celestial  deities. 

Chaldean  Astrology  and  Astronomy.  —  As  the  Chaldeans  be- 
lieved that  the  affairs  of  human  life  were  influenced  by  the  celes- 
tial spirits,  the  position  and  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
were  matters  of  deep  concern.  The  temples  therefore  became 
not  only  sanctuaries,  but  also  observatories.  Here  the  priests 
could  not  only  appease  the  anger  of  the  gods,  but  could  observe 
the  will  of  the  gods.  By  studying  the  position  of  the  planets 
and  their  apparent  relations  to  human  events  they  developed 
a  system  of  astrology,  by  which  human  events  were  supposed 
to  be  predicted.  But  they  also  observed  the  regular  move- 
ment of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  ascertained  certain  facts  of 
astronomy  with  more  accuracy  than  was  done  in  India.  They 
marked  out  the  constellations  and  the  signs  of  the  zodiac.     They 


THE   MESOPOTAMIAN  COUNTRIES 


37 


divided  the  year  into  months,  weeks,  days,  minutes,  and 
seconds.  It  has  been  said  that "  the  utmost  progress  that  it  was 
possible  to  make  in  this  science  with  the  naked  eye,  unaided  by 
optical  instruments,  was  made  by  the  Chaldeans  "  (Lenormant). 


II.     The  Assyrian  Empire 

The  Assyrian  Supremacy  and  Conquests.  —  While  the  early 
Babylonian  empire  was  extending  its  power  in  the  south,  a 
new  monarchy  was  growing  up  in  the  north  with  its  seat  at 
Nineveh.  This  monarchy  was  founded  by  the  Assyrians,  a 
people  of  purer  Sem- 
itic stock  than  the 
early  Babylonians. 
At  first  it  was  the 
rival  of  Babylonia; 
afterward  it  suc- 
ceeded in  overthrow- 
ing that  empire,  and 
in  becoming  the  rul- 
ing power  in  west- 
ern Asia  (about  1250 
B.C.).  The  Assyrians 
have  been  compared  to  the  Eomans  as  a  military  and  conquering 
people,  and  as  the  organizers  of  a  great  empire.  They  culti- 
vated the  arts  of  war,  having  well-organized  bodies  of  infantry, 
cavalry,  and  war  chariots.  Like  every  warlike  nation  they  be- 
came cruel  to  their  captives  and  oppressive  to  their  subjects. 
They  not  only  subdued  the  rival  monarchy  at  Babylon,  but 
carried  their  arms  into  Media,  into  the  country  of  the  Hit'tites 
in  Asia  Minor,  into  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Jude'a,  Arabia,  and  Egypt. 
Under  various  monarchs — chief  among  whom  were  Tiglath- 
Pile^ser,  Shalmane'ser,  Sargon  II.,  Sennach'erib,  and  Asshur- 
bani-pal'  (Sardanapa'lus) — Assyria  became  the  most  powerful 
empire  in  Asia,  having  under  its  control  the  whole  country 
extending   from  the   Mediterranean    Sea  to  the  Caspian    Sea 


Assyrian  War  Chariot 


38 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


and  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  people  of  Assyria  took  up  the 
civilization  of  Babylonia  and  added  to  it  many  features  of 
their  own. 

Assyrian  Government  and  Laws.  —  The  Assyrians  seem  to 
have  been  the  first  great  people  to  develop  a  systematic 
government  based  upon  the  imperial  idea.  In  this  respect  they 
made  a  great  advance  upon  the  early  Babylonians.  The 
monarch  was  the  supreme  source  of   all  authority.     He  was 

surrounded  by  a  court  composed  of 
officers  of  his  household,  such  as  the 
grand  vizier,  the  royal  cupbearer, 
the  royal  treasurer,  the  captain  of  the 
guards,  etc.  These  officers  served 
the  king  and  executed  his  commands. 
The  provinces  of  the  empire  received 
a  definite  organization.  They  were 
divided  into  two  classes  —  those  under 
governors,  or  satraps,  appointed  by 
the  king,  and  those  under  native 
rulers  approved  by  the  king  and  sub- 
ject to  him.  The  provinces  were  all 
alike  obliged  to  furnish  tribute  for 
the  royal  treasury  and  troops  for  the 
royal  army.  Except  the  priestly 
class,  the  subjects  of  the  king  pos- 
sessed a  certain  degree  of  equality, 
there  being  no  caste  system,  as  in  India,  and  no  established 
aristocracy.  There  was,  however,  a  class  of  slaves  composed 
of  captives  taken  in  war  and  of  persons  unable  to  pay  their, 
debts.  The  Assyrians  had  certain  civil  laws  regarding  prop- 
erty and  contracts.  Their  criminal  laws  were  very  severe  and 
the  penalties  often  cruel. 

Assyrian  Architecture.  Royal  Palaces. — The  influence  of 
the  imperial  idea,  and  the  great  dignity  attached  to  the  king, 
are  seen  in  the  character  of  the  Assyrian  architecture.  The  most 
important  buildings  were  not   the   temples,  as  in  Babylonia, 


Assyrian  King 


THE  MESOPOTAMIAN  COUNTRIES 


39 


but  the  royal  palaces,  upon  which  the  wealth  of  the  empire 
was  expended.  The  temple  was  merely  accessory  to  the 
palace,  and  was  still  built  in  the  form  of  a  terraced  tower. 
But  the  palace  assumed  another  form,  and  was  built  over  an 
extended  area  upon  the  flat  surface  of  an  artificial  hill  or 
elevation  overlooking  a  plain  or  river.  Either  it  was  built 
in  one  story,  or  the  upper  stories  were  of  light  construction. 
Although  this  country  furnished  stone  suitable  for  building, 
the  Assyrians  continued,  like  the  Chaldeans,  to  use  brick  for 
architectural  purposes.  The  royal  palace  consisted  of  a  vast 
system   of  courts,  corridors,  and  galleries.      In   spite  of  the 


Assyrian  Palace  at  Nineveh  (Restoration) 

fact  that  the  Assyrians  used  the  arch  in  sewers,  the  roof  of 
the  palace  was  generally  supported  by  wooden  beams  placed 
upon  massive  brick  walls.  Slender  columns,  made  of  stone  or 
of  wood  covered  with  metal,  were  often  used  for  ornamental 
purposes ;  and  these  were  sometimes  surmounted  with  capitals 
of  artistic  designs. 

Assyrian  Sculpture  and  Painting.  —  The  Assyrians  acquired 
considerable  skill  and  proficiency  in  the  art  of  sculpture. 
This  was  chiefly  employed  in  the  way  of  ornamentation  for 
the  royal  palaces.  The  most  conspicuous,  but  not  the  most 
pleasing,  examples  of  Assyrian  sculpture  are  seen  in  the  enor- 
mous and  grotesque  figures  which  were  usually  placed  at  the 
entrance  of  the  palace.    They  consisted  of  winged  bulls  or  lions 


40 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


with  human  heads,  —  symbolizing  perhaps  strength,  swiftness, 
and  intelligence,  —  and  were  supposed  to  guard  the  palace  from 
the  intrusion  of  evil  spirits.     The  highest  examples  of  Assyrian 

art  are  seen  in  the  bas- 
reliefs,  cut  on  alabaster 
slabs  and  adorning  the  in- 
terior of  the  royal  palaces. 
Here  are  represented  scenes , 
of  war  and  events  in  the 
life  of  the  king.  In  these 
sculptured  reliefs  are  ex- 
hibited the  best  specimens 
of  ancient  drawing  before 
the  time  of  the  Greeks. 
Although  the  figures  are 
drawn  in  profile  and  with 
no  attention  to  perspective, 
the  scenes  are  full  of  action  and  show  great  care  in  matters  of 
detail.  Indeed,  from  the  large  number  of  these  reliefs  we 
have  obtained  much  of  our  knowledge  of  Assyrian  life  and 
customs.     The  flat  and  strong:  colors — often  a  brilliant  ver- 


WiNGED  Bull  with  Human  Head 


ASSYKLA.N  Bas-relief 

milion  —  which  are  placed  upon  the  reliefs,  show  the  first 
steps  in  painting,  which  had  not  yet  reached  the  dignity  of  an 
independent  art. 


THE   MESOPOTAMIAN   COUNTRIES 


41 


A  Cylinder 
Seal 


Assyrian  Seals  and  Cylinders.  —  We  should  overlook  the  most 
delicate  skill  of  this  people  if  we  failed  to  notice  the  fine 
intaglio-work  cut  in  precious  stones,  such  as  onyx,  feldspar,  jas- 
per, chalcedony,  and  used  as  seals  for  making  impressions  upon 
clay.  This  work  was  often  cut  upon  cylinders, 
which  revolved  upon  a  metallic  axis,  and  con- 
sisted of  inscriptions  or  symbolic  designs. 
The  finest  of  these  cylinder  seals  were  used  by 
the  king,  and  were  cut  in  sharp  and  distinct 
lines,  with  details  so  minute  as  almost  to  re- 
quire the  use  of  a  magnifying  glass  to  perceive 
them.  The  inscriptions  upon  these  cylinder  seals  as  well  as 
upon  the  coarser  cylinder   tablets  have   proved   valuable   as 

sources  of  information  regarding  the 
Assyrian  monarchy  and  its  civiliza- 
tion. 

Assyrian  Literature  and  Libraries. 
—  This  people  also  possessed  a  cer- 
tain taste  for  literature,  which  they 
had  derived  from  the  early  Baby- 
lonians. Their  books  were  clay 
tablets,  on  which  their  traditions 
and  records  were  inscribed  in  cunei- 
form characters.  It  was  customary 
from  very  early  times  to  collect  and 
preserve  these  tablets  in  public  libra- 
ries. Such  libraries  existed  both  at 
Babylon  and  at  Nineveh.  The  most 
noted  of  these  was  the  library  in 
the  royal  palace  of  Asshur-bani-pal 
(Sardanapalus),  the  Assyrian  king, 
who  was  a  zealous  patron  of  literature  and  has  been  called 
the  "Augustus  of  Assyria."  This  library  was  not  only  a 
treasury  of  knowledge  for  the  Assyrian  people:  it  has  also 
proved  to  be  a  valuable  storehouse  of  information  for  modern 
scholars. 


Assyrian  Clay  Tablet 


42 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


Assyrian  Life  and  Manners.  —  The  life  of  the  Assyrians  was 
centered  about  the  person  of  the  king.  The  nearer  one  lived  to 
the  king,  the  more  honored  and  ennobled  was  his  station ;  and 
the  farther  removed  he  was  from  the  king,  the  more  despised 
and  degraded  he  became.  The  life  in  the  palace  was  a  life  of 
leisure  and  luxury;  while  the  common  people  lived  in  cone- 
shaped  huts  built  of  clay,  subsisting  upon  barley  or  the  meat 
and  milk  of  domestic  animals.     The  well-to-do  Assyrian  wore 

a  long  robe  bordered  with  a  fringe 
and  decorated  with  embroidery. 
He  wore  his  hair  long  and  curled 
at  the  end,  the  beard  cut  square 
and  also  twisted  into  curls.  The 
people  were  industrious  and 
highly  skilled  in  the  mechanical 
arts.  They  wove  cloths  of  bril- 
liant colors,  and  carpets  of  rich 
designs.  They  had  fine  tools  of 
iron  and  steel,  and  worked  in 
bronze,  enameled  clay,  precious 
metals,  glass,  ivory,  and  precious 
stones.  They  used  the  potter's 
wheel,  the  pulley,  and  the  lever, 
and  also  had  a  system  of  weights  and  measures  which  they 
employed  in  their  trade.  In  their  industrial  arts  they  were 
probably  not  surpassed  by  any  other  ancient  people.  Their 
religion  was  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  Babylonians. 


Headdress  of  the  Vizier 


III.     The  Later  Babylonian   Empire 


Recovery  of  the  Empire  by  Babylon.  —  During  the  supremacy 
of  Assyria,  Babylon  remained  in  the  position  of  a  dependent 
kingdom ;  but  throughout  this  period  she  had  preserved  the 
memory  of  her  former  greatness,  and  frequently  revolted 
against  the  Assyrian  monarch.  But  in  these  attempts  she  was 
doomed  to  failure,  until  she  found  an  ally  in  a  people  living 


THE   MESOPOTAMIAN  COUNTRIES  43 

east  of  the  Tigris.  This  people  was  the  Medes,  who  had  them- 
selves been  subject  to  Assyria  for  more  than  a  century ;  they 
had  now  recovered  their  independence  and  established  an 
empire  of  their  own.  With  the  aid  of  the  Medes,  the  Baby- 
lonians succeeded  in  destroying  Nineveh  and  overthrowing  the 
Assyrian  monarchy  (606  B.C.).  The  dominions  of  Assyria 
were  divided  between  the  conquerors,  —  Media  ruling  the 
countries  to  the  east  of  the  Tigris,  and  Babylon  the  countries 
to  the  west. 

Babylon  under  Nebuchadnezzar.  —  In  this  way  Babylon  recov- 
ered her  ancient  power,  and  ruled  with  increased  splendor. 
The   great   King  Nebu- 

chadnez'zar  restored  her  Y  »T  >T  t^fe  ^  fe^T  ^^^■^ 
fallen  cities,   and  made 

1  ^     -p^    «   .,1.^^+-  +^,^^  4--u^  The  Name  Nebuchadnezzar  in 

her  for  a  short  time  the  Cuneiform 

center  of  Eastern  civili- 
zation. He  rebuilt  the  city  of  Babylon,  surrounded  it  with 
massive  walls,  and  adorned  it  with  sumptuous  palaces.  To 
rival  the  beauties  of  nature  and  to  please  his  queen,  a  Median 
princess,  he  built  the  famous  'Hianging  gardens,"  which  were 
artificial  hills  built  in  the  form  of  iminense  terraces  and  cov- 
ered with  luxurious  shrubs  and  flowers.  During  this  brief 
period  of  her  later  supremacy  Babylon  attained,  in  the  highest 
degree,  all  the  luxury  and  pomp  peculiar  to  Oriental  civiliza- 
tion. To  the  religious  art  of  the  early  Chaldeans  she  added 
the  palatial  architecture  of  the  Assyrians.  The  great  skill 
which  the  Assyrians  had  developed  in  the  industrial  arts  was 
also  acquired  by  the  Babylonians.  And  Babylon  also  vied 
with  Nineveh  as  the  great  commercial  center  of  the  world. 
But  Babylon  finally  fell  before  the  rising  power  of  Persia 
(538  B.C.),  which  absorbed  all  the  countries  of  western  Asia, 
and  whose  history  became,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  inter- 
woven with  that  of  Greece. 

The  Assyrio-Babylonian  Civilization. — We  have  considered 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  as  the  seats  of  three  successive  empires  ; 
but  in  their  culture  we  should  regard  them  simply  as  present- 


44  ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 

ing  three  phases  of  one  and  the  same  civilization.  The  early 
Babylonians  had  received  the  rudiments  of  their  culture  from 
the  Accadians,  and  had  developed  a  form  of  religion,  science, 
and  art  which  showed  the  evidence  of  intellectual  growth  and 
a  certain  degree  of  refinement.  The  Assyrians  took  up  the 
culture  of  the  Babylonians,  and  impressed  upon  it  a  political  and 
imperial  stamp,  such  as  was  naturally  derived  from  a  great  and 
conquering  people.  And  this  imperial  character  was  transferred 
back  to  Babylon  with  the  establishment  of  the  later  empire.  So 
the  civilization  which  was  finally  developed  in  the  Mesopota- 
mian  valley  was  a  mingling  of  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  elements. 
If  we  should  try  to  disentangle  these  elements,  we  might  say 
that  the  Babylonian  culture  was  more  religious  and  jjriestly, 
more  intellectual  and  scientific,  receiving  its  best  expression  in 
the  temple  tower,  which  was  a  center  both  of  religion  and 
science.  And  we  might  say  that  the  Assyrian  culture  was 
more  secular  and  political,  more  materialistic  and  practical, 
receiving  its  highest  expression  in  the  royal  palace,  which  was 
the  center  of  imperial  power.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  these 
different  forms  of  culture  came  to  be  but  two  sides  of  one 
civilization,  which  existed  alike  at  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 

The  Influence  of  Mesopotamian  Culture.  —  The  Mesopotamian 
valley  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  great  centers  of  ancient 
civilization.  By  its  commercial  and  political  relations  its 
culture  was  extended  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
The  religious  ideas  of  the  Babylonians  became  the  common 
property  of  the  East,  and  their  notions  regarding  the  origin 
of  the  world  and  the  early  condition  of  mankind  became 
entwined  with  the  Hebrew  account  of  creation.  Their  progress 
in  certain  branches  of  science,  especially  in  astronomy,  formed 
a  contribution  to  the  intellectual  developnient  of  the  ancient 
world.  Their  skill  in  some  of  the  industrial  arts,  such  as  weav- 
ing and  the  cutting  of  intaglios,  has  scarcely  been  equaled  by 
modern  nations.  Their  political  organization  formed  the  basis 
of  the  later  imperial  systems  of  the  East,  which  were  after- 
ward transferred   to   Europe  under  the  later  Eoman  empire. 


THE   HITHER  ORIENT  45 


SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Sayce,  Ancient  Empires,  Ch.  2,  "Babylonia  and  Assyria"  (3)  i  ; 
Article  "Babylonia"  ("  Encyclopaedia  Britannica"). 

Lenormant,  Vol.  L,  Bk.  IV.,  Ch.  4,  "Civilization,  Manners,  and  Monu- 
ments of  Assyria  "  (3). 

Rawlinson,  Monarchies,  Vol.  L,  Assyria,  Ch.  7,  "Manners  and  Cus- 
toms" (3). 

Smith,  P.,  Ch.  17,  "The  Cuneiform  Writing  and  Literature"  (3). 

Ragozin,  Media,  etc.,  Ch.  9,  "Babylon  the  Great"  (6);  Chaldea,  Ch.  5, 
"Babylonian  Religion"  (6). 

Maspero,  Life,  Ch.  16,  "  Assurbanipal's  Library  "  (3). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

Assyrian  Architecture.  —  Smith,  pp.  377-383  (3);  Lenormant,  Vol.  I., 
pp.  456-465  (3)  ;  Rawlinson,  Monarchies,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  277-339  (3) ;  Mas- 
pero, Life,  Ch.  11 ;  Hamlin,  Ch.  4  (19)  ;  Smith  and  Slater,  Ch.  3  (19). 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE   HITHER   ORIENT  — EGYPT,  PHOENICIA,   AND  JUDEA 

I.     Ancient   Egypt   and    its    Civilization 

Egypt  and  the  Nile.  —  To  complete  our  brief  review  of  the 
progress  of  civilization  before  the  time  of  the  Greeks,  we  must 
pass  from  the  Mesopotamian  valley  to  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  where  the  Oriental  culture  reached  its  highest 
development.  This  sea  forms,  in  fact,  the  center  of  a  new 
world.  It  not  only  became  the  center  of  a  world  commerce, 
but  it  also,  by  the  facility  which  it  afforded  for  the  exchange 
of  id^as,  became  the  center  of  a  world  culture.  Upon  its 
shores  have  flourished  some  of  the  greatest  nations  of  both 
ancient  and  modern  times.     The  oldest,  and  in  some  respects 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appendix, 
where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


46 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


MEDITERRANEAN 

^  SEA 


the  most  remarkable,  of  these  nations  was  Egypt,  The  people 
who  settled  Egypt  belonged  to  what  has  been  called  the 
Hamitic  race.  But  where  they  came  from,  or  when  they 
made  their  first  settlements,  is  a  matter  of  conjecture.  We 
can  better  explain  why  they,  of  all  the  African  people,  were 
the  first  to  become  civilized.     We  have  already  seen  that  the 

peoples  that  have  made  the  great- 
est progress  are  those  who  have 
found  their  homes  upon  the  shores 
of  great  rivers.  What  the  Euphra- 
tes was  to  Babylon,  and  the  Tigris 
was  to  Nineveh,  the  Nile  was  to 
Egypt.  Every  historian  from  the 
time  of  Herodotus  has  been  im- 
pressed with  the  fact  that  "  Egypt 
is  the  gift  of  the  Nile."  The  hab- 
itable part  of  Egypt  consists  of 
a  long,  narrow  valley,  nearly  six 
hundred  miles  in  length,  with  a 
width  of  only  about  seven  or  eight 
miles  until  it  spreads  out  into  a 
wide  area  about  the  delta  of  the 
river.  Not  only  has  this  valley 
been  cut  by  the  Nile,  but  its  great 
fertility  is  due  to  the  annual  over- 
flow of  this  river.  The  climate  of  Egypt  is  exceedingly  dry ; 
and  to  this  fact  is  due  the  remarkable  preservation  of  the 
monuments  of  this  country. 

Egypt  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts.  (1)  The 
lower,  or  northern  part,  includes  the  extended  plain  about  the 
Delta,  where  the  soil  is  most  fertile,  and  where  the  earliest 
civilization  was  developed.  It  was  here,  also,  that  the  first 
empire  was  established,  with  its  center  at  Memphis.  (2)  The 
upper,  or  southern  part,  includes  the  rest  of  the  valley  as  far  as 
the  rapids,  called  the  "  first  cataract,"  near  the  borders  of 
Ethiopia.     This  formed  a  second  area  of  civilization,  with  its 


Egypt 

Seats  of  empire,  1 


II,  III 


THE    HITHER   ORIENT  47 

center  at  Thebes.  In  either  direction  from  these  two  centers 
the  banks  of  the  Nile  became  dotted  with  a  multitude  of  towns 
and  villages,  each  one  of  which  was  a  seat  of  industry  and  art. 
The  country  was  subdivided  into  districts,  called  "nomes." 
These  are  supposed  "to  represent  the  numerous  small  states 
of  the  prehistoric  age  out  of  which  the  historic  Egypt  was 
constituted"  (Sayce).  ^ 

Egyptian  Dates  and  Dynasties.  —  Formerly  the  chief  sources 
of  our  knowledge  of  Egypt  were :  first,  the  Greek  historians, 
especially  Herodotus,  who  visited  Egypt  in  the  fifth  century 
B.C. ;  and  second,  the  Egyptian  priest,  Man'etho,  who  lived  in 
the  third  century  B.C.,  and  who  wrote  a  history  containing  a 
list  of  the  various  dynasties  and  kings,  but  whose  work  has 
reached  us  only  in  fragments.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  however,  a  vast  amount  of  additional 
information  regarding  Egypt  has  been  derived  from  the  in- 
scriptions which  have  been  deciphered  and  the  monuments 
which  have  been  brought  to  light.  With  these  sources  many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  reconstruct  the  chronological 
history  of  Egypt.  But  scholars  do  not  yet  agree  in  regard  to 
the  dates  of  the  early  Egyptian  history.^  The  general  divi- 
sions of  Egyptian  history  and  the  most  important  dynasties 
may  be  briefly  indicated  as  follows :  — 

1.  Tlie  Old  Empire  (about  4000-2700  B.C.),  covering  the  first 
to  the  tenth  dynasties  inclusive,  with  the  capital  at  Memphis. 
During  this  time  the  most  important  dynasty  was  the  fourth, 
when  the  great  pyramids  and  the  sphinx  were  built  at  Gizeh, 
and  the   vast  necropolis,  or  rock   cemetery,  was  laid  out  at 

1  Egyptologists  are  grouped  into  two  schools,  according  as  they  advocate 
the  long  or  the  short  chronology.  (1)  The  long  chronology,  generally  advo- 
cated on  the  continent,  fixes  the  date  of  Menes,  the  first  king,  variously  at 
5702  B.C.  (Boeckh) ,  5004  (Mariette) ,  3892  (Lepsius) ,  and  3623  (Bunsen) .  (2)  The 
short  chronology,  advocated  generally  in  England,  formerly  fixed  the  date  of 
the  first  king  at  about  2700  B.C.  (Wilkinson  and  Rawlinson).  The  tendency 
at  present,  as  shown  in  the  writings  of  Petrie  and  Maspero,  is  to  carry  the  date 
of  Menes  back  at  least  to  4000  B.C.  The  dates  in  the  text  are  approximately 
those  of  Lepsius,  followed  by  Ploetz. 


48 


ANCIENT   ORIENTAL   NATIONS 


Sakka'rah,  near  Memphis.  The  kings  of  the  fourth  dynasty 
are  known  as  the  "  pyramid  builders,"  the  most  noted  of  whom 
was  Khufu  (or  Cheops). 

2.  TJie  Middle  Empire  (about  2700-1670  e.g.),  covering  the 
eleventh  to  the  seventeenth  dynasties,  with  the  capital  first  at 
Thebes  and  afterward  at  Tanis.  The  most  important  dynasty 
was  the  twelfth,  when  Lake  Moeris  was  constructed  as  an  arti- 
ficial reservoir  for  regulating  the  water  supply  of  the  Nile,  the 
so-called  labyrinth  was  built,  and  obelisks  began  to  be  erected. 
This  dynasty  was  followed  by  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  for- 
eign kings,  called  the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  Kings,  whose  rule 
extended  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  seventeenth  dynasty, 
which  was  the  darkest  period  of  Egyptian  history. 

3.  The  New  Empire  (1670-525  B.C.),  covering  the  eighteenth 
to  the  twenty-sixth  dynasties  (to  the  time  of  the  Persian  con- 
quest), the  capital  being  again  at  Thebes  and  afterward  at 
Tanis  and  Sais.  The  most  important  dynasties  were:  the 
eighteenth,  when  Egypt  recovered  its  independence  by  driving 
out  the  Shepherd  Kings,  and  under  Thothmes  III.  extended 
its  power  into  Ethiopia  and  into  Asia  as  far  as  Nineveh,  and 


THE   HITHER  ORIENT 


49 


magnificent  temples  and  palaces  were  built  at  Thebes  (Kar- 
nak  and  Luxor)  ;  the  nineteenth,  when  the  empire  reached  its 
highest  glory,  under  Seti  I.  and  his  son  Ram'eses  II.  (Greek 
Sesos'tris),    the     "  grand 

monarch  ''  of  Egypt ;  the  i^ 

twenty-first,  when  the  seat 
of  power  was  transferred 
to  Tanis  m  the  Delta ; 
the  twenty-second,  when 
Jerusalem  was  captured 
and  plundered  by  the 
Egyptian  king;  the  twenty- 
fifth,  when  Egypt  was  con- 
quered by  the  Ethiopians 
and  afterward  by  the  As- 
syrians ;  and  the  twenty- 
sixth,  when  Egypt  re- 
covered its  independence 
under  Psammet'ichus  I. 
(with  the  capital  at  Sais), 
and  after  a  century  was 
finally  reduced  to  a  Per- 
sian province. 

Egyptian  Industry  and  Industrial  Arts.  —  But  more  important 
than  the  knowledge  of  these  dates  and  dynasties  is  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  Egyptians  themselves,  and  of  their  progress  in  the 
arts  of  civilized  life.  Their  industrial  life  grew  out  of  the 
nature  of  the  valley  in  which  they  lived.  The  rich  deposits 
of  the  Nile  gave  them  a  fertile  soil  so  that  they  became  an 
agricultural  people.  They  plowed  the  ground,  and  raised  crops 
of  grain,  such  as  wheat  and  barley;  of  vegetables,  such  as 
onions,  radishes,  and  melons;  of  flax,  which  they  wove  into 
garments.  For  regulating  and  distributing  the  water  supply 
of  the  ISTile  they  built  canals  and  reservoirs.  The  most  remark- 
able of  these  artificial  reservoirs  was  Lake  Moeris,  by  which 
an  outlying  district  called  the  Fayoum'  was  transformed  from 


Head  from  Sarcophagus  of 
Rameses  II. 


50 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


a  desert  waste  into  fertile  fields.  The  Egyptians  acquired 
great  skill  in  the  industrial  arts,  working  in  clay,  stone,  and 
glass ;  in  wood,  ivory,  leather,  and  the  textile  fabrics ;  in  the 
coarser  metals,  bronze,  lead,  and  iron ;  and  in  the  precious 
metals,  gold  and  silver.  They  exchanged  these  products  with 
one  another,  by  boats  plying  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  which 
became  an  artery  of  commerce.  They  did  not,  however,  carry 
on  an  extensive  commerce  with  foreign  countries. 


Gold  Bracelet  of  the  XVIIIth  Dynasty 

Egyptian  Society  and  Government.  —  Egypt,  at  the  dawn  of 
history,  had  already  become  a  united  empire.  But  there  is 
evidence  that  this  empire  grew  up  from  a  union  of  towns  and 
villages  which  had  previously  been  independent,  each  under 
its  own  ruler  and  priests.  These  towns  became  grouped  into 
districts,  or  nomes,  under  local  governors  ;  and  these  in  turn 
came  under  the  common  authority  of  a  king  who  ruled  over 
the  whole  country.  The  people  were  divided  into  classes,  but 
not  into  rigid  castes  like  the  people  of  India.  The  upper 
classes  included  the  priests,  whose  office  was  hereditary,  and 
the  warriors,  who  were  devoted  exclusively  to  military  pur- 
suits. The  lower  classes  comprised  the  common  people,  in- 
cluding the  artisans,  the  farmers,  and  the  herdsmen.  The 
land  was  generally  owned  by  the  upper  classes,  and  let  out 
to  the  peasants,  who  paid  their  rent  in  the  products  of  the  soil. 
Above  all  these  classes  was  the  king,  or  Pha'raoh,  who  was 


THE   HITHER   ORIENT 


51 


Pharaoh 


looked  upon  as  a  divine  person.     He  was  the  fountain  of  all 

authority;  and  the  labor,  the  property,  and  the  lives  of  the 

people  were  at  his  disposal.     He 

was    approached    only    by    the 

priests  and  the  military  nobles. 

His  authority  was  limited  only 

by  the  will  of  the  gods ;  but  in 

interpreting  this  will,  the  priests 

became  a  kind  of  power  behind 

the  throne. 

Egyptian  Religion  and  Science. 
—  The  religion  of  Egypt  was  a 
strange  mixture  of  seemingly  in- 
congruous elements.  It  is  difficult 
to  find  in  it  any  single  principle, 
so  that  scholars  have  differed  in 
their  opinions  as  to  its  real  char- 
acter. This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  different  religious 
customs  grew  up  in  different  localities,  before  the  country  was 
organized  in  a  common  empire.  The  lowest 
form  of  religion  was  animal  worship,  such  as 
was  prevalent  among  the  primitive  tribes  of 
Africa.  The  crocodile,  the  serpent,  the  hawk, 
the  cow,  the  cat,  and  many  other  animals  were 
held  as  sacred.  For  many  centuries  the  bull 
Apis  was  worshiped  as  an  important  god  at 
Memphis.  This  low  form  of  worship  survived 
in  Egypt  even  after  the  development  of  higher 
religious  ideas.  Besides  this  animal  worship 
we  find  a  complex  form  of  nature  worship. 
The  forces  of  nature  were  worshiped  as  gods, 
and  represented  in  human  forms.  The  mix- 
ture of  these  two  forms  of  religion  —  animal 
worship  and  nature  worship  —  is  seen  in  the 
representation  of  the  gods  with  human  bodies  and  the  heads  of 
animals.  The  animal  features  came  afterward  to  be  regarded 
morey's  greek  hist. — 4 


Serapis 


52 


ANCIENT   ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


as   simply  symbolical  of  spiritual  qualities.     In  the  higher 
gods,  however,  human  heads  were  joined  to  human  bodies. 

The  chief  object  of  nature  worship  Avas  the  sun,  the  source 
of  light  and  life,  whose  journey  through  the  heavens  was  the 
cause  of  day  and  night  and  an  ^ 

emblem  of  life  and  death.     The  Rm 

sun  god  was  worshiped  under 
different  names  at  different  places 
—  as  Ptah  at  Memphis,  as  Amun- 
Ea  at  Thebes,  as  Osi'ris  at  This 
and  Aby'dos.  "The  unification 
of  the  empire  brought  with  it  the 
unification  of  these  various  cir- 
cles of  gods.  They  were  all 
grouped  together  under  the  sov- 
ereignty of  Ptah  while  the  old 
empire  lasted,  and  of  Amun  when 
Thebes  gained  the  supremacy " 
(Sayce).  The  gods  were  often 
joined  in  "  triads ''  -^  the  most  noted  of  which  was  that  of  Osiris 
the  father,  Isis  the  mother,  and  Horus  the  son.  AVith  the 
recognition  of  a  supreme  god,  the  most  learned  men  of  Egypt 
attained  an  idea  which  approached  that  of  monotheism.  We 
sometimes  find  in  the  old  records  such  statements  as  this : 
"  Before  all  things  which  actually  exist,  and  before  all  begin- 
nings, there  is  one  God,  unmoved  in  the  singleness  of  his  own 
Unity  "  (quoted  by  Jamblicus). 


Amun 


Ptah 


Judgment  of  the  Soul  before  Osikis 


THE    HITHER   ORIENT 


53 


The  Egyptians  believed  in  immortality,  or  the  continued 
existence  of  the  soul  after  death.  This  belief  led  to  the 
practice  of  embalming  the  body  of  the  deceased,  that  the 
mummy  might  be  preserved  for  the  return  of  the  spirit.  The 
Egyptians  also  believed  in  a  system  of  future  rewards  and  pun- 
ishments and  in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  like  the  Hindus. 
The  priests  of  Egypt,  who  had  charge  of  the  religion,  were  also 
the  learned  class.  They  cultivated  philosophy,  and  the  various 
sciences  —  astronomy,  geometry,  arithmetic,  and  medicine  — 
which  here  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  development. 


The  Ramesseum 

Egyptian  Architecture  and  Monuments.  —  The  religious  spirit  of 
the  Egyptians  was  strongly  impressed  upon  their  architecture, 
which  consisted  mainly  of  tombs  and  temples.  The  buildings 
for  the  dead. are  seen  in  the  rock-sepulchers  cut  in  the  sides  of 
the  hills  which  flanked  the  Nile  —  as,  for  example,  the  necropolis 
at  Sakkarah  (near  Memphis)  and  also   at  Thebes.     Separate 


54 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


Colossal  Statues  of  Ramesks  11. 


monumental  tombs  took  the  form  of  pyramids,  and  reached 
the  most  gigantic  proportions  at  Gizeh.  In  these  artificial 
mountains  of  stone  rested  the  remains  of  kings.  The  most 
impressive  and  finished  specimens  of  architecture  are  seen  in 
the  massive  temples,  which  were  made  up  of  a  colossal  combi- 
nation of  columns  and  sculptured  walls.  Noted  examples  of 
these  temples  were  those  of  Luxor  and  Karnak  and  the 
Kamesse'um  near  Thebes,  the  ruins  of  which  are  among  the 
most  imposing  in  the  world.  Egyptian  architecture  is  dis- 
tinguished by  simplicity  of  general  design,  but  especially  by 
grandeur  of  proportions  and  great  elaborateness  of  decoration. 
It  is  also  distinguished  by  the  use  of  columns,  instead  of 
walls,  as  the  chief  means  of  supporting  the  roof  —  a  feature 
which  was  afterward  adopted  by  the  Greeks. 

Egyptian  Sculpture,  Painting,  and  Music.  —  The  other  arts  were 
also  cultivated  by  the  Egyptians.  This  people  was  probably  the 
first  to  make  sculpture  an  independent  art,  —  that  is,  not  joined 


THE   HITHER   ORIENT  55 

to  architecture.  Some  of  the  best  of  their  statues  belong  to  a 
very  early  period.  The  colossal  Sphinx  is  perhaps  the  most 
ancient  example  of  independent  sculpture  existing  in  the  world. 
But  a  less  pretentious  form  of  statuary  grew  up  in  the  form 
of  portrait  statues,  which  were  placed  in  the  tombs  to  preserve 
the  image  of  the  deceased.  Many  of  these  portrait  statues 
show  a  considerable  degree  of  artistic  skill.  But  Egyptian 
sculpture  came  to  lose  its  independent  character  and  to  be 
used  for  the  decoration  of  buildings.  It  appears  in  immense 
figures  affixed  to  tombs  and  temples,  and  also  in  the  multitude 
of  bas-reliefs  which  adorned  the  walls  of  buildings.  These 
sculptured  designs  were  almost  always  colored,  like  the  Assyr- 
ian, and  show  the  early  steps  in  the  growth  of  painting.  The 
subjects  of  these  paintings  are  almost  infinite  in  variety,  from 
the  representation  of  the  gods  to  scenes  of  domestic  life.  The 
Egyptians  also  attained  some  skill  in  music,  and  possessed 
such  instruments  as  the  guitar,  the  harp,  and  the  pipe,  while 
the  drum  and  the  trumpet  inspired  the  soldier  on  his  march. 
Egyptian  Writing  and  Literature.  —  The  great  number  of 
inscriptions  cut  upon  the  buildings  and  monuments  indicate  the 
peculiar  character  of  the  Egyptian  waiting,  and  one  of  the  ways 
in  which  records  were  kept.  On  account  of  these  inscriptions 
and  designs  the  buildings  are  veritable  books  in  stone.  But 
they  remained  practically  sealed  books  until  a  key  was  found 
by  which  the  inscriptions  could  be  deciphered.  The  "Eoset'ta 
stone,"  discovered  near  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Nile  ^during 
Napoleon's  expedition  to  Egypt  (1799),  contained  a  ro^^al 
decree  written  in  three  kinds  of  characters,  the  hieroglyphic, 
the  demotic,  and  the  Greek.  With  this  key  the  French  scholar 
Champollion  deciphered  the  language  (1821),  and  may  be  said 
to  have  unlocked  the  treasure-house  of  Egyptian  learning.  This 
line  gives  an  example  of  the  hieroglyphic  characters  :  — 


immmmmy\<Pi\ 


56 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


The  written  language  of  Egypt,  like  that  of  Babylonia  and 
China,  had  its  origin  in  picture  writing.  The  most  ancient 
form  is  the  hieroglyphic,  made  up  of  pictures  of  things  and 
symbols  of  ideas.  The  next  form  is  the  hieratic,  which  was 
used  by  the  priests  for  executing  long  records,  and  hence  is  a 
more  cursive,  or  running  form.  The  final  form  is  called  the 
demotic,  because  it  was  used  by  the  people.  The  Egyptian 
language  contains  not  only  ideographic  but  also  phonetic 
elements,  —  that  is,  the  symbols  represent  not  only  ideas  but 
sounds,  and  they  in  fact  contain  the  germs  of  a  phonetic 
alphabet,  such  as  the  Phoenicians  developed.     The  Egyptians 


Mummy  and  Mummy  Case 

did  not  confine  their  writing  to  stone;  they  also  used  a  kind  of 
paper  prepared  from  the  papyrus  plant.  Their  literature  con- 
tained many  books  upon  science  and  religion ;  the  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  the  so-called  "Book  of  the  Dead." 
Extracts  from  this  book  are  found  inclosed  in  mummy  cases, 
and  reveal  the  Egyptian  ideas  of  immortality  and  descriptions 
of  the  future  life. 


II.     Phcexicia  and  Anctext  Commerce 

Phoenicia  and  its  People.  —  The  people  of  the  Mediterranean 
which  ranked  next  to  the  Egyptians  in  art,  science,  and  mate- 
rial progress,  were  thePhfjenicians.  Their  home  was  a  narrow 
strip  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  sea,  about  150  miles  long,  and 
from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  wide,  and  shut  off  from  the  interior 


THE   HITHER  ORIENT 


57 


country  by  the  range  of  the  Leb'anon  Mountains.  The  Phoeni- 
cians spoke  a  Semitic  language.  They  borrowed  many  of 
their  ideas  and  customs  from  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians, 
and  showed  something  of  the  same  skill  in  the  industrial  arts. 
They  were  especially  distinguished  for  their  glass  and  metal 
work,  their  pottery,  their  textile  fabrics,  their  embroidery  and 
purple  dyes.  In  addition  to  the 
scientific  notions  which  they  bor- 
rowed from  others,  they  are  said 
to  have  discovered  the  relation  be- 
tween the  tides  of  the  sea  and  the 
motions  of  the  moon.  Their  re- 
ligion was  a  polytheistic  nature 
worship,  similar  to  that  of  Assyria, 
accompanied  by  gross  and  cruel 
ceremonies.  Their  chief  god  was 
Ba'al,  or  Moloch,  the  sun  god  or 
the  fire  god,  to  whom  they  some- 
times offered  human  sacrifices.  By 
the  side  of  the  sun  god  was  the 
moon  goddess,  Astar'te  (or  Ash'- 
toreth),  the  queen  of  heaven,  whose 
worship  was  accompanied  by  cere- 
monies that  revealed  the  low  moral 
ideas  of  the  people.  In  their  limited  territory  they  had  no 
passion  for  military  glory  or  political  dominion,  but  were  made 
subject  at  various  times  to  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylon. 
Their  government  was  restricted  mainly  to  the  cities,  which 
were  sometimes  grouped  into  confederacies.  Their  greatest 
cities  were  Sidon  and  Tyre,  which  were  in  succession  the  chief 
seats  of  Phoenician  civilization. 

Phcenician  Commerce.  —  If  Egypt  owed  its  civilization  to  the 
Nile,  Phoenicia  owed  its  greatness  to  the  sea.  Upon  the  sea 
the  Phoenicians  established  an  empire  perhaps  equal  in  im- 
portance to  that  which  any  other  Oriental  people  had  estab- 
lished  upon  the    land.      The   cedars    of    Lebanon   furnished 


ARABIA 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


Phoenicia  and  Palestine 


58 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


A  Phoenician  Bireme 


timber  for  their  ships  ;  and  with  these  they  became  the  first 
masters  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  greatest  commercial 
nation  of  ancient  times.  Their  fleets  established  the  first 
commercial   intercourse    between   Europe,    Asia,   and   Africa. 

They  not  only  exported  their  own 
products  to  other  countries,  but 
they  became  the  common  carriers 
for  the  known  world.  From  India 
they  brought  ivory,  jewels,  spices, 
and  scented  wood.  From  Arabia 
they  brought  gold,  precious  stones, 
incense,  and  myrrh.  From  the 
coasts  of  Ethiopia  they  added  to 
their  cargoes  of  gold  and  ivory, 
supplies  of  ebony  and  ostrich  feathers.  They  brought  from 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic  yellow  amber;  from  Spain,  silver,  iron, 
lead,  and  copper ;  from  Africa,  the  precious  metals ;  and  from 
Britain,  tin.  Thus  the  different  parts  of  the  world  were  brought 
into  relation  with  one  another  by  the  Phoenician  mariners  and 
merchants. 

Phoenician  Colonies.  —  To  aid  in  extending  their  commerce 
the  Phoenicians  established  trading  posts,  or  colonies,  in  all 
the  countries  visited  by  their  ships  and  merchants.  Not  only 
were  these  established  in  the  civilized  countries  of  the  East 
for  the  purchase  and  exchange  of  wares;  they  were  also  es- 
tablished among  the  uncivilized  peoples  of  the  West  for  the 
development  of  the  resources  of  new  lands.  The  coasts  of 
the  Mediterranean  became  dotted  with  Phoenician  colonies. 
The  most  famous  of  these  colonies  was  Carthage  (founded 
about  850  b.c),  which  itself  established  a  commercial  empire 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  and  which  in  later  times  came 
into  a  bitter  conflict  with  Rome.  The  colonies  on  the  Medi- 
terranean were  largely  mining  stations,  where  the  metals  were 
extracted  from  the  earth  for  the  use  of  eastern  factories.  By 
thus  coming  into  contact  with  the  barbarous  people  on  the 
European  coasts,  the  Phoenicians  diffused  among  them  a  taste 


THE   HITHEK   ORIENT  59 

for  the  arts  of  civilized  life.  They  carried  not  only  commodi- 
ties but  culture.  They  have  on  this  account  been  called  the 
first  "  missionaries  of  civilization."  It  has  been  said  that 
''  from  the  Isles  of  Greece  to  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  there  is 
not  a  country  that  is  not  indebted  to  their  teaching,  not  one 
where  the  fruitful  effect  of  those  bold  voyages  was  not  felt'' 
(Lenorraant). 

The  Phoenician  Alphabet.  — But  the  greatest  gift  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians to  the  world  was  a  true  phonetic  alphabet.  It  is  said  that 
the  Phoenicians  invented  their  alphabetical  writing  as  a  common 
language  of  commerce.  Wherever  they  sailed  and  carried 
their  cargoes,  they  also  carried  their  alphabet,  which  Eenan 
aptly  calls  one  of  their  "  exports."  The  alphabet  was,  how- 
ever, the  result  of  a  long  process  of  growth.  We  have  already 
seen,  for  example,  among  the  Chinese  and  the  Chaldeans  (pp. 
25,  35),  that  the  earliest  writing  was  in  the  form  of  pictures,  and 
that  these  pictures  at  first  represented  material  objects  or  con- 
crete ideas  like  that  of  a  fish,  a  man,  a  house,  etc.  We  have  seen 
that  to  these  pictures  were  added  symbols  to  represent  more 
abstract  ideas,  like  that  of  goodness,  brightness,  etc.  This  kind 
of  writing  which  represents  concrete  or  abstract  ideas  is  called 
ideographic.  It  is  evident  that  such  a  mode  of  writing  requires 
a  separate  symbol  for  almost  every  separate  idea ;  and  as  the 
ideas  of  men  became  more  numerous,  the  number  of  these  sym- 
bols would  become  very  great.  To  meet  this  difficulty  there 
were  gradually  adopted  certain  signs  to  represent  sounds.  This 
kind  of  writing  is  called  phonetic.  Such  phonetic  signs  were 
first  used  to  represent  syllables.  The  Chinese  began  to  use 
some  signs  of  this  kind,  and  the  Assyrians  adopted  a  great 
many.  But  the  Egyptians  made  an  improvement  upon  this  by 
separating  the  syllables  into  more  elementary  sounds,  and 
adopting  a  sign  for  each  sound.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
alphabetic  writing ;  but  the  signs  used  by  the  Egyptians  were 
very  indefinite  and  largely  pictorial;  for  example,  the  sound 
of  A  was  represented  by  the  picture  of  a  feather  or  by  that  of 
an  eagle. 


60 


ANCIENT   ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


It  was  reserved  for  the  Phoenicians  to  develop  a  true  phonetic 
alphabet,  in  which  the  chief  elementary  sounds  were  repre- 
sented by  separated  and  well-delined  characters.^  This  alpha- 
bet was  adopted  by  many  peoples,  especially  by  the  Greeks, 
who  gave  it  to  the  E-omans,  by  whom  it  was  given  to  modern 
nations.  Thus  the  Phoenicians,  through  the  development  of 
commerce  and  the  invention  of  a  true  phonetic  alphabet,  must 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  nations  of  the  Orient. 


III.       JUDEA    AND    THE    HEBREWS 

The  Hebrew  Nation. — Not  far  from  Phoenicia  in  Palestine  there 
grew  up  another  Semitic  nation,  which  was  in  many  respects 
different  from  every  other  Oriental  people  (see  map,  page  57). 
This  was  the  Hebrew  nation.     Having  no  great  river  like  that 

1  The  successive  stages  in  the  growth  of  writing  in  different  Oriental  nations, 
from  the  pictorial  to  the  alphabetic  stage,  may  be  crudely  illustrated  by  the 
following  table :  — 


CHINESE. 

BABYLONIAN. 

EGYPTIAN. 

IMKKNICIAN. 

f 
pictorial 

^ 

■i:^ 

^ 

man 

fish 

man 

Ideographic  ^ 

symbolic 

^ 

it 

t 

left 

anoint 

good 

syllabic 

M' 

^-r 

^ 

neu 

an 

ankh 

Phonetic 

alphabetic 

!1 

A 

2C 

A 

THE  HITHER  ORIENT  61 

of  the  Egyptians,  and  not  taking  to  the  sea  like  the  Phoenicians, 
they  did  not  attain  distinction  in  the  industrial  or  commercial 
arts.  Their  greatness  did  not  depend  upon  art  or  science,  or 
upon  their  capacity  for  political  organization.  Yet  they  have 
perhaps  done  for  civilization  as  much  as  any  other  people  of  the 
East,  for  they  became  the  moral  and  religious  teachers  of  • 
the  world.  We  have  seen  in  other  peoples  the  growth  of  reli- 
gious ideas  —  in  animal  worship,  in  ancestor  worship,  in  nature 
worship.  We  have  also  seen,  especially  among  the  wisest  men 
of  India  and  of  Egypt  (pp.  29,  52),  the  attempt  to  reach  after 
the  idea  of  a  supreme  God,  superior  to  all  other  gods.  But 
these  ideas  never  attained  the  form  of  a  true  monotheism,  nor 
did  they  become  a  part  of  the  religion  of  the  common  people. 
The  Hebrews  alone,  of  all  the  peoples  of  antiquity,  acquired  a 
true  monotheistic  religion. 

Periods  of  Jewish  History.  —  No  other  ancient  nation  pos- 
sessed so  complete  a  record  as  did  the  Hebrews  of  the  way  in 
which  a  people  has  passed  from  the  primitive  to  the  civilized 
stage.  From  these  records,  we  learn  that  their  ancestor  Abra- 
ham, or  Abram  as  he  was  first  called,  came  (about  2000  b.c.) 
from  Ur,  a  city  of  the  Chaldeans ;  that  he  visited  Egypt,  and 
finally  settled  in  Judea.  His  descendants,  in  the  time  of  a 
famine,  took  refuge  in  Egypt,  and  became  subject  to  the  Shep- 
herd Kings,  who  assigned  to  them  a  home  in  lower  Egypt 
(Goshen).  Being  oppressed  by  a  king  of  a  subsequent  dynasty, 
they  were  delivered  from  their  bondage  by  their  great  leader 
and  lawgiver,  Moses,  a  man  skilled  in  all  the  learning  of 
Egypt.  From  this  time  the  history  of  the  Jews  may  be  divided 
into  the  following  periods  :  — 

1.  From  the  Exodus  to  the  EstahlisTimeyit  of  the  Monarchy 
(1300-1095  B.C.).  —  During  'this  time  the  people  were  welded 
into  a  nation,  with  a  national  law  and  a  national  religion,  under 
the  statesmanship  of  Moses.  They  crossed  the  Jordan  under 
their  leader,  Joshua,  captured  Jer'icho,  conquered  the  surround- 
ing country  in  Palestine,  and  established  a  theocratic  common- 
wealth under  the  rule  of  officers  called  "judges." 


62 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


2.  From  the  Estuhlishment  of  the  Monarchy  to  the  Division 
of  the  Kingdom  (1095-975  e.g.).  —  During  this  period  the 
nation  was  ruled  by  three  distinguished  kings.  The  first  of 
these  was  Saul,  who  carried  on  war  with  the  neighboring  tribes, 
the  Am'monites,  the  Philis 'tines,  and  others.  The  second  king 
was  David,  who  captured  Jerusalem  and  made  it  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom,  building  a  royal  palace,  with  the  aid  of  Phoeni- 
cian architects.      By  his  conquests  he  established  an  empire 


Temple  at  Jerusalem  (Restoration) 

extending  from  the  Euphrates  on  the  north  to  the  Ked  Sea  on 
the  south.  The  third  and  last  king  of  the  united  monarchy 
was  Solomon,  who  gave  to  the  kingdom  an  air  of  Oriental  mag- 
nificence. He  built  a  splendid  temple  on  Mount  Mori'ah,  and 
adorned  Jerusalem  with  sumptuous  palaces.  He  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  kings  of  Tyre,  and  carried  on  an  extensive 
commerce  with  Egypt  and  the  East.  He  amassed  enormous 
wealth  and  surrounded  his  throne  with  pomp  and  splendor. 
He  married  an  Egyptian  princess,  and  established  a  luxurious 
court  like  that  of  the  Eastern  kings.  But  his  glory  was  pur- 
chased at  the  expense  of  justice  and  his  nation's  honor.     He 


THE   HITHER   ORIENT  63 

laid  heavy  burdens  upon  his  subjects  and  impoverished  his 
people.  He  disregarded  the  laws  of  Moses,  and  the  Hebrew 
kingdom  became  practically  an  Oriental  monarchy  like  that  of 
Assyria  or  Babylon. 

3.  From  the  Division  of  the  Kingdom  to  the  Babylonish  Cap- 
tivity (975-586  B.C.).  —  During  this  time  the  Hebrew  nation 
formed  two  distinct  kingdoms.  Ten  tribes  revolted  and  formed 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  with  its  capital  at  Sama'ria ;  the  remain- 
ing two  tribes  formed  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  with  its  capital 
at  Jerusalem.  The  kingdom  of  Israel  was  finally  conquered 
by  the  Assyrian  king  Sargon  (722  b.c),  and  the  people  were 
removed  to  Nineveh,  where  they  were  "lost"  as  a  separate 
people.  The  kingdom  of  Judah  was  destroyed  by  the  Baby- 
lonian king  Nebuchadnezzar  (586  B.C.),  and  the  inhabitants 
were  carried  away  as  captives  to  Babylon;  but  they  were 
afterward  allowed  to  return  to  Jerusalem  (537  b.c.)  as  subjects 
of  Cyrus,  the  Persian  king. 

The  Hebrew  Commonwealth.  —  Before  the  Hebrew  nation 
passed  under  a  monarchical  form  of  government,  their  society 
is  of  special  interest  to  us,  because  it  was  patterned  upon  a 
pure  democratic  type.  The  Hebrew  commonwealth  presents 
the  best,  and  perhaps  the  only,  example  of  a  true  democracy 
among  ancient  civilized  nations  before  the  time  of  the  Greeks. 
The  society  was  based  upon  the  patriarchal  family.  The 
father  was  head  of  the  family  group  and  priest  of  the  family 
worship.  Parental,  marital,  and  filial  duties  were  the  sacred 
ties  of  social  life.  The  families  were  grouped  into  tribes,  each 
under  a  patriarchal  chief,  a  council  of  elders,  and  a  general 
assembly.  The  tribes  were  united  into  a  larger  federal  com- 
monwealth, with  its  judge,  who  was  a  patriarchal  and  military 
chieftain;  its  san'hedrim,  which  was  a  national  senate,  or 
federal  council ;  and  its  "  congregation,"  which  was  a  popular 
assembly  of  the  tribes.  Each  tribe  retained  the  right  of  local 
self-government,  and  all  its  people  were  equal  before  the  law  — 
except  the  slaves,  who  were,  however,  generally  well  treated. 
The  decay  of  the  Hebrew  commonwealth  was  due  to  the  influx 


64 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


of  Oriental  ideas,  and  to  the  breaking  down  of  the  primitive 
customs  of  the  Hebrew  nation. 

The  Hebrew  Religion.  Monotheism.  —  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  people  and  the  rulers  were  often  led  astray  by  the 
influence\of  foreign  religious  ideas,  still  the  highest  and  most 
distinctive  feature  of  the  Jewish  civilization  was  the  growth 
of  monotheism.  We  must  judge  of  the  real  character  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  not  by  the  practices  of  those  who  departed 
from  it,  but  by  the  teachings  of  those 
who  were  its  highest  expounders  — 
Moses  and  the  prophets.  In  these  great 
teachers  we  find  the  true  idea  of  mono- 
theism. This  is  not  the  idea  of  the 
Hindus  and  the  Egyptians,  that  there 
is  one  god  higher  than  other  gods  ;  it 
is  the  idea  that  there  is  only  one  Su- 
preme God,  and  besides  Him  there  are 
none  else,  —  and  this  is  the  idea  that  the 
Hebrews  may  be  said  to  have  given  to 
the  world.  Another  feature  of  the  Jew- 
ish religion  was  the  fact  that  it  was  closely  linked  to  morality. 
Eeligious  worship  and  moral  duty  were  regarded  as  two  sides 
of  a  complete  life.  The  history  of  the  nation  was  a  constant 
struggle  against  false  ideas  of  religion  and  false  ideas  of 
morality.  When  the  priests  were  carried  away  with  the  idea 
that  religion  consisted  simply  in  rites  and  ceremonies,  and  the 
kings  were  seeking  the  pomp  and  luxury  of  the  East,  and  the 
people  were  falling  into  wickedness  and  idolatry,  it  was  left  to 
the  later  prophets  to  become  the  true  expounders  of  religion 
and  the  moral  law.  They  have  been  called  the  "  great  consti- 
tutional patriots  of  the  Jewish  state ;  the  champions  of  virtue, 
liberty,  justice,  and  the  strict  observance  of  the  civil  and  reli- 
gious law  against  the  iniquities  of  the  kings  and  the  people  " 
(Milman). 

The  Hebrew  Literature.     The  Bible.  —  The  idea  of  monothe- 
ism was  the  inspix'ing  idea  of  the  Hebrew  literature,  as  it  was 


The  Ark  of  the 
Covenant 


THE   HITHER  ORIENT  65 

of  the  Hebrew  religion.  This  literature  is  contained  in  what 
we  call  the  Old  Testament,  and  comprises  (1)  the  Pentateuch, 
or  the  legal  books  ;  (2)  the  historical  books ;  (3)  the  poetical 
books  ;  and  (4)  the  books  of  the  prophets.  In  their  literary 
genius  the  Hebrews  surpassed  all  other  Oriental  nations.  In 
the  writings  of  their  poets  and  prophets  we  find  the  highest 
examples  of  religious  fervor  and  imaginative  description.  The 
Psalms  of  David,  the  Book  of  Job,  and  the  Prophecy  of 
Isaiah,  considered  merely  as  literary  compositions,  are  unsur- 
passed in  the  literature  of  any  people.  When  we  consider  the 
writings  of  the  Hebrews  and  their  religious  influence  upon  the 
civilized  world,  we  must  assign  to  this  nation  a  high  place 
among  the  historical  peoples  of  ancient  times. 

IV.    Nations  of  Asia  Minor 

Asia  Minor  and  Europe.  —  Coming  still  nearer  to  Greece,  we 
find  certain  nations  which  formed  with  the  Phoenicians  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  civilization  of  the  East  and  that  of 
the  West.  Asia  Minor  (map,  page  68)  is  a  peninsula  projecting 
toward  Europe,  and  seeming  to  offer  to  the  Western  world  the 
fruits  of  Eastern  culture.  The  islands  which  fringe  its  coast 
almost  mingle  with  those  of  Greece,  so  that  the  ^ge'an  Sea 
became  an  easy  highway  for  the  exchange  of  ideas  and  customs. 
The  soil  and  climate  of  Asia  Minor  were  congenial  to  a  civil- 
ized life.  It  has  been  described  as  "  naturally  the  richest  of 
countries,  and  blessed  with  an  almost  infinite  variety  of 
climates"  (Sayce).  The  peninsula  is  cut  nearly  in  two  by  the 
river  Halys,  which  flows  into  the  Black  Sea,  and  which 
formed  the  dividing  line  between  two  quite  distinct  peoples. 
To  the  east  of  this  river  is  Armenia,  a  country  early  settled 
(before  the  arrival  of  the  Aryans)  by  a  people  of  uncertain  ori- 
gin which  spread  to  the  south.  This  people,  under  the  name 
of  Hittites,  developed  a  powerful  kingdom  to  the  north  of 
Phoenicia  and  to  the  west  of  the  Euphrates.  In  the  western 
part  of  Asia  Minor  the  people  were  mostly  Aryans,  who  prob- 


66 


ANCIENT  ORIENTAL  NATIONS 


ably  came  from  Thrace  across  the  Bos'phorus.  They  were 
known  as  Phrygians,  Lycians,  Carians,  and  Lydians.  The 
most  important  kingdom  among  them  came  to  be  that  of  Lydia. 
By  their  position  in  Asia  Minor  we  can  see  that  the  Hittites  to  the 
east,  and  the  Lydians  to  the  west,  held  an  intermediate  station 
between  the  old  empires  of  Asia  and  the  new  nations  of  Europe. 
The  Hittites  and  their  Empire.  —  As  the  Hittites  have  left 
to  us  no  literature,  we  know  comparatively  little  about  them, 

except  what  is  derived  from  the 
records  of  the  Assyrians,  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  the  Jews.  From  these 
records  we  learn  that  they  possessed 
an  empire,  at  one  time  extending 
over  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
rivaling  that  of  Babylon  and  Egypt. 
They  are  said  to  have  done  much 
.  I       for  civilization  by  taking  up  the  arts 

and  culture  of  Assyria,  Egypt,  and 
Phoenicia,  and  spreading  this  culture 
throughout  Asia  Minor  and  passing 
it  on  to  their  Western  neighbors. 

The  Lydian  Monarchy.  —  The  Lyd- 
ians in  the  west  of  Asia  Minor  were 
the  people  who  came  into  the  closest 
relation  to  the  Greeks.  They  were 
a  mixed  race,  having  both  a  native 
and  a  large  Aryan  element.  They  were,  therefore,  related  not 
only  to  the  people  of  Asia,  but  also  to  the  people  of  Europe. 
When  in  early  times  the  Greeks  were  founding  cities  on  the 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Lydians  were  building  up  an  exten- 
sive monarchy  with  their  capital  at  Sardis.  This  kingdom 
covered  the  territory  west  of  the  Halys,  including  Phrygia  and 
the  neighboring  countries.  Through  their  neighbors,  the  Hit- 
tites, it  is  believed  they  received  much  of  the  civilization  of  the 
East.  From  the  Phoenicians  they  derived  a  taste  for  commerce, 
and  became  a  wealthy  and  industrious  people. 


HiTTiTE  Relief 

(Photographed  in  situ) 


THE   HITHER   ORIENT  67 

As  the  Greeks  held  the  coast,  the  Lydians  carried  on  their 
commerce  through  the  Greek  ports  and  inspired  the  Greeks 
also  with  a  taste  for  commerce.  They  are  said  to  have  been 
the  first  people  to  coin  money  by  stamping  devices  upon  pieces 
of  gold  and  silver.  Their  king,  Croesus,  was  known  as  the 
richest  prince  of  his  age.  The  Lydian  monarchy  was  finally 
overthrown  by  Persia  —  the  great  empire  which  swallowed  up 
all  the  other  empires  of  Asia  from  the  Indus  to  the  ^gean, 
and  which  threatened  to  extend  its  power  into  Europe,  but 
whose  defeat,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  was  one  of  the  great 
achievements  of  the  Greek  people.  The  point  which  we  should 
keep  in  mind  from  these  statements  is  the  fact  that  one  of  the 
paths  by  which  the  art  and  civilization  of  the  East  made  their 
way  into  Greece  was  through  the  countries  of  Asia  Minor. 

SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Sayce,  Ancient  Empires,  Part  I.,  "Egypt";  Part  II.,  "Phoenicia"; 
Part  III.,  "Lydia"  (3).i 

Maspero,  Life,  Ch.  8,  "The  Funeral  and  the  Tomb"  (3);  Egyptian 
Archseology,  Ch.  5,  "The  Industrial  Arts"  (7). 

Rawlinson,  History  of  Egypt,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  4,  "Language,"  Ch.  5, 
"Literature"  (7);  Story  of  Egypt,  Ch.  4,  "The  Pyramid  Builders" 
(7)  ;  Phoenicia,  Ch.  18,  "Phoenician  Manufactures"  (9). 

Smith,  P.,  Ch.  9,  "Industry,  Religion,  and  Arts  of  Egypt"  (3). 

Murray,  pp.  381-392,  "  Mythology  and  Religion  of  Egypt"  (25). 

Lenormant,  Vol.  L,  Bk.  IL,  "The  Israelites";  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  VL,  Ch.  4, 
"Civilization  and  Influence  of  the  Phoenicians";  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  5, 
"  Civilization,  Manners,  and  Monuments  of  the  Egyptians  "  (3). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

Phcenician  Commerce.  —  Lenormant,  Vol.  IL,  pp.  199-206  (3)  ;  Grote, 
Part  IL,  Ch.  18  (11)  ;  Keller,  Ch.  1  (15)  ;  Harrison,  Introductory  Studies, 
Ch.  3  (19)  ;  Socin,  article  "Phoenicia"  (" Encyclopaedia  Britannica ")  ; 
Rawlinson,  Chs.  5,  10  (9). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appendix, 
where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


PnOOKESSI^rE  -MA^T  ISTo,  s. 


BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 


^>*<c 


PERIOD   I.     THE   PEEHISTORIO   AQE   OP   GEEEOE 
( 776  B.C.) 


CHAPTER   V 

HELLAS  AND  THE    HELLENES 

I.     The  Place  of  Greece  in  History 

Greece  and  the  Orient.  —  Our  review  of  the  ancient  nations  of 
the  East  will  help  us  to  see  more  clearly  than  we  otherwise 
could,  two  important  facts.  In  the  first  place,  it  will  help  us 
to  see  the  extent  and  character  of  the  civilization  which  was 
developed  before  the  time  of  the  Greeks,  and  by  which  the 
Greeks  were  somewhat  influenced.  In  the  next  place,  it  will  help 
us  to  see  more  clearly  the  real  additions  which  the  Greeks  made 
to  the  civilization  of  the  world.  By  looking  at  the  map  we  can 
see  the  close  relation  of  Greece  to  Asia ;  and  how  the  Greeks, 
before  all  the  other  peoples  of  Europe,  would  naturally  become 
the  heirs  of  the  Eastern  world.  The  culture  of  Egypt  and 
Mesopotamia  —  the  two  great  centers  of  Eastern  civilization  — 
had  been  taken  up  by  the  Phoenicians  and  the  countries  of 
Asia  Minor.  The  drift  of  Oriental  civilization  was  thus  in 
the  direction  of  the  .^gean  Sea.  On  the  coasts  and  islands  of 
this  sea  were  scattered  the  fruits  of  Eastern  culture.  We  must 
morey's  greek  hist. — 5      69 


70  BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 

therefore,  first  of  all,  think  of  the  Greeks  as  the  heirs  of  the 
Orient. 

Greece  and  the  Occident.  —  Although  it  is  true  that  the  Greeks 
gathered  the  fruits  of  Asiatic  culture,  it  is  just  as  true  that 
they  sowed  the  seeds  of  a  new  and  higher  civilization.  That 
which  makes  Europe  to-day  different  from  Asia  is  due  in  large 
part  to  the  genius  of  this  gifted  people.  We  think  of  Asia  as 
belonging  to  another  world ;  we  think  of  Greece  as  a  part  of 
ourselves.  We  look  upon  the  sculptures  of  Egypt  and  Assyria 
as  something  strange  and  foreign;  but  the  models  of  Greek 
statuary  we  admire  as  the  most  beautiful  objects  of  art  in  our 
own  homes.  Nearly  all  that  we  prize  most  highly  in  literature, 
in  art,  and  in  philosophy,  we  have  received  from  the  Hellenic 
race.  We  must  therefore  think  of  the  Greeks,  not  only  as  the 
heirs  of  the  Orient,  but  as  the  founders  of  that  civilization 
which  is  ours,  and  which  we  call  European ;  but  which  is  in 
fact  the  civilization  of  the  Occident,  —  that  is,  of  the  whole 
Western  world. 

The  Greek  Love  of  Freedom.  —  One  of  the  chief  characteristics 
that  distinguished  the  Greeks  from  the  people  of  Asia  was 
their  love  of  freedom.  Nearly  everywdiere  in  the  East  the 
people  had  been  reduced  to  a  condition  of  servility.  Their 
priests  were  supposed  to  hold  the  keys  of  knowledge,  scien- 
tific as  well  as  religious.  Their  lives  and  property  were  held  at 
the  service  of  the  king,  and  the  king  was  supposed  to  represent 
the  divine  will.  Human  life  and  human  thought  were  thus 
cramped  by  despotic  authority.  In  Greece,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  people  possessed  a  high  degree  of  freedom  —  freedom  of 
thought  and  freedom  of  action.  They  loved  liberty  and  could 
brook  no  restraint  except  that  which  they  imposed  upon  them- 
selves. With  such  a  passion  for  freedom  they  became  a  wide- 
awake, active,  energetic,  and  versatile  people. 

The  Greek  Idea  of  Culture.  —  There  was  another  feature 
that  distinguished  the  Greeks  from  the  Oriental  peoples, 
which  was  perhaps  quite  as  important  as  their  love  of  freedom. 
This  was  their  peculiar  idea  of  culture.     The  culture  of  the 


HELLAS  AND  THE  HELLENES  71 

East  was  generally  shown  in  excessive,  extravagant,  and  often 
grotesque  forms  —  in  enormous  temples  and  palaces,  in  colossal 
statues,  in  overwrought  ornamentation  and  fantastic  designs. 
To  this  extravagant  form  of  culture  that  of  the  Greeks  stands 
in  striking  contrast.  The  Greeks  believed  in  simplicity  and 
in  moderation  in  all  things.  They  loved  harmony,  proportion, 
and  symmetry.  Their  civilization  was  marked  by  an  intellec- 
tual discipline ;  and  it  everywhere  bore  the  impress  of  a 
cultivated  mind.  It  has  been  said  that  it  was  this  quality, 
this  rational  self-control,  this  soundness  of  intellect,  "  which 
distinguished  Greek  art  and  literature  from  that  of  the 
East;  it  alone  made  the  creation  of  classical  forms  possible" 
(Holm). 

The  Greek  Sense  of  Beauty.  —  But  it  was  especially  in  the 
domain  of  art  that  the  Greek  genius  excelled.  No  other  people 
ever  possessed  such  an  instinct  for  beauty.  It  is  hardly  too 
much  to  say  that  with  the  Greeks  a  new  idea  of  art  was  brought 
into  the  world.  The  great  temples,  the  rock-hewn  sepulchers, 
the  enormous  columns,  and  the  gigantic  figures  of  Egypt  are 
often  very  imposing;  but  it  is  impossible  to  find  in  them  those 
marks  of  refined  taste  which  satisfy  the  most  cultivated  minds 
of  to-day.  But  the  symmetry  of  a  Greek  temple  and  the  grace 
of  a  Greek  statue  are  as  much  admired  now  as  ever. 

The  Greek  Form  of  the  State.  —  Another  important  advance 
which  the  Greeks  made  upon  the  Orient  was  in  the  form  of  the 
state.  We  have  seen  nearly  everywhere  in  the  East  great  em- 
pires and  despotic  governments,  the  people  being  subjects  of 
the  state,  but  not  citizens,  —  having  political  bnrdens  but  no 
political  rights.  Greece,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  land  of  small 
self-governing  communities,  the  people  having  more  or  less  a 
share  in  the  government.  The  East,  it  is  true,  had  its  great 
cities  ;  but  Greece  first  established  the  "  city  state,"  —  that  is, 
an  organized  community  based  upon  political  freedom  and  the 
rights  of  citizenship.  And  the  Greek  city  state  was  the  first 
phase  of  the  European  political  system  under  which  we  live 
to-day. 


72 


BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 


II.   Hellas,  i'he  Land  of  the  Greeks 

The  JEgean  Sea.  —  We  may  perhaps  find  some  explanation 
of  the  peculiar  character  of  the  Greek  people  in  the  physi- 
cal features  of  the  country  in  which  they  lived.     We  call  this 


T 


/propontis 


k 


'■        ^      '       ■        0.",.     kU9       '"^-^N) 


'-.M 


i 


M 


ill  A 

CYTHERA 

EDI    T  E   B   B  "HX-^  E  A   N 


SCALE  OF  WILSS 

20     40     So     S'O     \\\0 


Hellas:  the  ^gean  Lands 

Routes  across  the  JEgean  Sea 

country  Greece ;  but  the  Greeks  themselves  called  their  home 
Hellas.  And  by  this  they  meant  not  merely  the  Grecian 
peninsula  in  Europe,  but  all  the  lands  inhabited  by  their 
people.  At  the  beginning  of  the  historical  period,  the  Greeks 
had  come  to  occupy  all  the  lands  about  the  ^Egean  Sea,  that 
is,  the  Asiatic  as  well  as  the  European  coasts,  and  also  the 


HELLAS  AND  THE  HELLENES  73 

intervening  islands.  The  iEgean  Sea  must  then  be  regarded 
as  the  home  of  Greek  civilization.  Its  waters  unite  Europe  to 
Asia,  geographically  as  well  as  historically,  and  "the  coast 
lands  on  either  side  belong  to  one  another  as  if  they  were  the 
two  halves  of  the  same  country  "  (Curtius). 

The  Asiatic  Coasts.  —  The  eastern  half  of  the  Greek  world 
lay  upon  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  here  that  the  Greeks 
came  into  the  closest  contact  with  the  older  civilizations.  Here 
they  built  many  cities  and  made  their  first  contributions  to  the 
world's  culture.  The  coast  lands  form  an  undulating  terrace 
sloping  toward  the  sea.  They  are  quite  separate  and  distinct 
from  the  highlands  and  broad  plateaus  which  form  the  main 
mass  of  Asia  Minor.  This  coast  land  is  crossed  by  four  chief 
rivers,  which  were  named  the  Cai'cus,  the  Hermus,  the  Cays'ter, 
and  the  Maean'der.  The  soil  was  fertile  and  the  climate  mikl  and 
agreeable.  The  coast  line,  like  the  opposite  shore  in  Europe,  is 
broken  by  a  great  number  of  bays  and  projections,  which  multi- 
ply the  points  of  contact  between  the  land  and  the  sea.  This 
fact  was  favorable,  not  only  to  the  development  of  a  commercial 
spirit,  but  to  the  growth  of  independent  political  communities. 

The  Islands  of  the  ^gean.  —  Scattered  over  the  ^gean  Sea 
are  a  vast  nuniber  of  islands,  which  have  been  compared  to 
"  stepping  stones  ''  between  the  eastern  and  the  western  coast. 
When  navigation  consisted  largely  of  "  coasting,"  these  islands 
served  to  mark  the  course  across  the  ^gean.  We  may  trace 
on  the  map  (page  72)  some  of  these  island  courses.  Starting 
from  Greece  the  most  southern  route  may  be  traced  by  way  of 
Cythe'ra,  Crete,  Car'pathus,  and  Rhodes.  A  central  course  may 
be  found  by  following  the  islands  of  Andros,  Tenos,  and  Delos, 
—  then  by  the  way  of  Naxos  and  Cos  to  the  shores  of  Caria,  or 
by  way  of  Ica'ria  and  Samos  to  the  coast  of  Lydia.  A  northern 
and  more  hazardous  route  may  be  traced  by  a  series  of  islands 
leading  by  way  of  Lemnos  and  Imbros  to  the  Hellespont  and 
to  Tro'as.  But  these  islands  were  something  more  than  guides 
for  the  mariner.  Some  of  them  were  sacred  to  the  Grecian 
gods ;  and  some  of  them  were  the  seats  of  an  early  civilization. 


74  BEGINNINGS  OF   GREECE 

European  Greece.  —  But  the  country  where  the  Greeks  reached 
their  highest  development  was  that  part  of  Hellas  which  lies  in 
Europe,  and  which  we  are  accustomed  to  call  Greece.  The 
chief  characteristic  of  this  favored  land  is  its  infinite  variety 
of  outline  and  relief,  together  with  its  varied  beauties  of  sea 
and  landscape.  There  is  no  other  country  in  the  Avorld  of  the 
same  area  which  has  such  an  extensive  line  of  coast.  The 
sea  winds  its  way  into  every  part  of  the  land,  and  it  is  said 
that  there  is  no  point  more  than  forty  miles  from  the  shore. 
The  estuaries  thus  formed  make  up  for  the  most  part  the 
navigable  waters  of  Greece.  The  eastern  coast,  which  looks 
toward  Asia,  is  indented  with  a  great  number  of  bays  and 
gulfs  which  are  by  nature  suited  for  harbors,  and  which 
opened  Greece  to  the  commerce  and  influence  of  the  Orient 
and  helped  to  make  the  Greeks  themselves  a  commercial  people. 
The  surface  of  the  country  is  broken  into  an  irregular  and  com- 
plicated network  of  mountains  and  valleys  —  thus  furnishing 
a  dwelling  place  for  a  large  number  of  separate  communities. 
The  land  is  drained  by  innumerable  small  rivers.  The  climate 
varies  with  the  seasons  from  hot  to  cold,  and  stimulates  to 
physical  and  mental  vigor.  The  soil  was  productive,  but  not 
lavish  in  its  gifts ;  so  that  the  people,  while  obtaining  the 
necessaries  and  comforts  of  life,  were  restrained  from  the  ex- 
cessive luxuries  of  the  East.  The  skies  are  brilliant,  flecked 
with  cloud  and  color,  which  appeal  to  the  imagination  and  the 
poetic  sense.  The  face  of  nature  was  attractive  to  the  Greek ; 
and  the  pleasing  variety  of  sea  and  land  and  sky  conspired 
with  the  native  genius  of  the  race  to  make  an  independent, 
active,  versatile,  and  aesthetic  people.  To  obtain  a  more  defi- 
nite idea  of  European  Greece,  and  of  its  historical  places,  we 
may  glance  at  its  three  principal  divisions. 

Northern  Greece  is  separated  from  the  main  part  of  Europe 
by  the  Cambu'nian  Mountains.  It  comprised  two  provinces, 
Epi'rus  and  Thes'saly,  divided  by  the  range  of  the  Pindus. 
Epirus,  to  the  west,  was  a  rugged  and  inhospitable  land, 
through  which  flowed  the  upper  part  of  the  Achelo'us,  the 


HELLAS  AND  THE  HELLENES  75 

largest  river  of  Greece.  Much  smaller  but  quite  as  noted  streams 
were  the  Ach'eron  and  Cocy'tus,  whose  dark  waters  were  sup- 
posed to  lead  to  the  infernal  regions.  The  most  famous  spot 
in  Epirus  was  Dodo'na,  where  was  located  the  most  ancient 
oracle  of  Zeus.  Thessaly,  to  the  east  of  the  Pindus,  was  a  fer- 
tile plain,  drained  by  the  river  Pene'us ;  this  stream  flows 
through  the  beautiful  vale  of  Tempe  into  the  Therma'ic  Gulf. 
To  the  north  rises  Mt.  Olym'pus,  the  highest  peak  in  Greece 
(nearly  10,000  feet),  upon  whose  summit  the  gods  were  sup- 
posed to  dwell.  Toward  the  south  might  be  seen  the  heights 
of  Ossa  and  Pe'lion,  around  which  clustered  many  fanciful 
legends. 

Central  Greece  comprised  a  number  of  states  of  varied  his- 
torical interest.  Toward  the  west  (see  map,  page  76)  were  the 
two  provinces  of  Acarna'nia  and  of  ^to'lia.  Opposite  the 
former  province  were  the  islands  of  Leucas  and  Cephalle'nia, 
and  also  Ith'aca,  the  home  of  Odys'seus,  one  of  the  heroes  of 
the  Trojan  war.  In  the  middle  of  central  Greece  were  the 
five  small  provinces  of  West  Locris,  Phocis,  Doris,  Mai  is,  and 
East  Locris.  Of  these  Phocis  claimed  the  highest  renown,  for 
it  contained  the  celebrated  oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  near 
which  rose  the  mount  of  Parnas'sus,  the  favorite  haunt  of  the 
Muses.  Another  kind  of  glory  might  be  claimed  for  East 
Locris,  on  whose  borders  lies  the  famous  pass  of  Thermop'ylse. 
Toward  the  east  of  central  Greece  were  the  three  provinces  of 
Boeo'tia,  At'tica,  and  Meg'aris.  Boeotia  was  aland  of  marshes 
and  fogs,  with  an  atmosphere  dull  aijd  heavy  —  qualities  which 
were  often  attributed  to  the  people  themselves.  This  district  con- 
tained the  cities  of  Thebes  and  Orchom  'enus,  one  of  which  took  an 
active  part  in  Greek  politics,  and  the  other  was  an  early  seat  of 
civilization.  To  the  east  of  Boeotia  lay  the  triangular  province 
of  Attica,  the  most  noted  country  of  Hellas.  Its  most  famous 
point  was  the  Acrop'olis,  about  which  grew  the  city  of  Athens, 
the  most  cultivated  spot  of  the  world.  Other  heights  were 
the  Pentel'icus,  famous  for  its  marble,  and  Hymet'tus,  noted 
for  its  honey.     To  the  south  of  Athens  were  the  silver  mines 


76 


BEGlNNI2iGS  OF  GREECE 


^ 


.om') 


/ 


,r      ^  •<^£ay  of  l-y  -.1  j  ^  — -^t^-.-— ^  , 


,  MtLOS, 


SCALE  0F'Mn.E8 
5       To      3o      35      40       ^ 


Central  Greece  and  the  Peloponnesus 


of  Lau'rium ;  to  the  northwest  was  the  sacred  city  of  Eleu'sis ; 
and  to  the  northeast  lay  the  heroic  field  of  Mar'athon. 

Southern  Greece  received  the  name  of  the  Peloponne'sns,  or 
the  "Isle  of  Pelops."  It  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  Gi-eece 
by  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  and  the  Saron'ic  Gulf,  having  as  a 
bond  of  union  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  The  central 
country  of  the  Peloponnesus  was  Arca'dia ;  this  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  mountains,  the  only  country  of  Greece 
(wdth  the  exception  of  Doris)  without  a  seaboard.  It  was 
perhaps  the  least  civilized  of  all  the  Greek  states,  being  noted 
for  its  primitive  culture  and  the  rustic  manners  of  its  people. 
To  the  west  and  north  of  Arcadia  were  the  three  provinces  of 
Elis,  Acha'ia,  and  Corin'thia.  The  most  famous  locality  in  these 
states  was  Olym'pia  in  Elis,  the  seat  of  the  "  Olympian  games." 


HELLAS  AND  THE  HELLENES  77 

Finally,  to  the  east  and  south  of  Arcadia  were  also  three  prov- 
inces—  Ar'golis,  Laco'nia,  and  Messe'nia.  Argolis  was  distin- 
guished for  the  prehistoric  cities  of  Myce'nse  and  Ti'ryns,  and 
the  historic  city  of  Argos.  Laconia  was  the  home  of  the  Spar- 
tans, who  became  the  ruling  power  of  the  Peloponnesus,  con- 
quering Messenia  and  other  states,  and  whose  chief  city,  Sparta, 
became  the  greatest  rival  of  Athens. 

III.     The  Hellenes,  the  People  of  Hellas 

Greek  Settlements  upon  the  ^gean.  —  It  would  be  interesting 
to  know  precisely  when,  and  how,  and  by  whom,  all  these 
lands  about  the  ^gean  Sea  were  first  settled.  But  this  is  a 
subject  concerning  which  we  have  no  very  extensive  or  defi- 
nite knowledge.  Instead  of  attempting  to  review  the  various 
theories  that  have  been  proposed,  or  of  dwelling  upon  what 
is  unknown,  it  will  be  better  for  us  to  gather  up  in  a  few 
words  what  is  generally  accepted  as  true  in  regard  to  the 
early  people  of  Hellas.  It  is  now  believed  by  scholars  that 
the  Greeks  made  very  early  settlements  upon  both  shores  of 
the  ^Egean  Sea;  and  that  "the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  is  just  as 
much  ancient  Greek  soil  as  European  Greece  "  (Holm).  If 
this  is  so,  we  can  readily  imagine  the  general  course  of  the 
ancient  settlements.  Moving  from  their  earlier  home,  — 
wherever  this  may  have  been,  —  the  Aryan  people  came  into 
Thrace.  A  part  of  them  then  crossed  the  Hellespont,  and, 
passing  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  found  new 
homes  upon  its  bays  and  islands.  Another  part,  pushing  to 
the  west,  along  the  northern  and  western  shore  of  the  ^gean, 
occupied  Thessaly,  Boeotia,  Attica,  and  the  other  Grecian 
provinces.  At  the  time  of  their  settlement,  the  early  Greek 
tribes  on  either  side  of  the  sea  were  scarcely  advanced  be- 
yond the  stage  of  barbarism.  They  worshiped  their  an- 
cestors and  the  gods  of  nature  ;  chief  among  these  gods  was 
Zeus,  the  god  of  the  heavens.  They  lived  upon  their  flocks 
and    herds    and   were   beginning  to  acquire   a   knowledge   of 


78  BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 

agriculture,-  cultivating  the  cereals  and  perhaps  the  vine. 
They  fought  with  spears  and  with  the  bow  and  arrow,  and 
made  their  implements  of  stone,  beginning  perhaps  to  use 
some  of  the  metals.  They  were  acquainted  with  the  art  of 
navigation,  certainly  with  the  use  of  boats  and  oars ;  but  the 
use  of  sailing  vessels  was  probably  acquired  after  they  settled 
upon  the  ^gean.  With  the  aid  of  these  vessels,  the  people  of 
the  different  shores  were  able  to  communicate  with  one  another, 
to  occupy  the  intervening  islands,  and  thus  to  preserve  the 
sense  of  their  original  kinship. 

The  Earliest  Tribes  of  Hellas.  — We  have  left  to  us  the 
names  of  some  very  ancient  peoples  of  Greece  which  were 
very  likely  pre- Aryan.  Chief  among  these  early  peoples  were 
the  Pelas'gians,  about  whom  much  has  been  written,  and 
little  is  known.  Their  name  is  found  on  both  sides  of  the 
iEgean  —  in  Asia  Minor,  where  they  are  said  to  have  fought 
on  the  side  of  the  Trojans;  in  Attica,  where  they  were  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the 
ancestors  of  the  Athenian 
people ;  and  in  Epirus, 
where  they  possessed  at 
Dodona  the  oracle  of  Zeus. 
To  them  are  attributed 
the  massive  stone  walls, 
found  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  and  often  described  as 
"  Cyclopae'an."  Other  very  early  tribes  were  the  Lel'eges,  who 
are  also  said  to  have  lived  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  many  parts 
of  European  Greece  ;  the  Carians,  who  lived  in  Megaris,  in 
the  Cyc'lades,  and  in  southern  Asia  Minor,  where  their  name 
became  attached  to  the  territory ;  the  Minyse,  who  are  said 
to  have  founded  the  city  of  Orchomenus  in  Boeotia,  and  to 
have  also  lived  on  the  island  of  Lemnos.  But  these  ancient 
tribes  are  to  us  scarcely  more  than  names  ;  for  we  know  very 
little  as  to  their  real  relation  to^Greek  civilization.  We  may 
remember  their  names,  however,  as  an  evidence  of  the  fact 
that  the  earlier,  as  well  as  the  later,  peoples  of  Hellas  had 


Ancient  "Cyclopean"  Wall 


HELLAS  AND  THE  HELLENES  79 

for  their  home  the  whole  basin  of  the  Mgesm  Sea,  and  were 
Hot  restricted  simply  to  the  Grecian  peninsula  in  Europe. 

The  Later  Hellenic  Tribes.  —  Passing  over  these  obscure 
jjeople,  we  come  to  the  names  of  four  tribes  which  are  more 
conspicuous  in  Grecian  history.  These  tribes  were  the 
Achae'ans,  the  lo'nians,  the  Do'rians,  and  the  ^o'lians.  They 
were  regarded  as  the  special  representatives  of  the  Hellenic 
race;  and  they  were  looked  upon  as  the  descendants  of  a 
common  ancestor,  Hellen  —  their  mythical  relationship  being 
indicated  as  follows :  — 

Hellen 

\ 

I  I 1 

XUTHUS  DORUS  ^OLUS 

I  {Dorians)  {^olians) 


I  I 

Acii.i:us  Ion 

{Achceans)  {lonians) 

The  Achaeans  were  in  very  early  times  the  leading  race  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  being  regarded  by  some  as  the  founders  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Tiryns,  Mycenae,  and  Argos.  The  early  home 
of  the  lonians  is  placed  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, also  in  Megaris,  Attica,  and  the  island  of  Euboe'a.  The 
Dorians  are  supposed  to  have  occupied  in  very  early  times 
the  plains  of  Thessaly.  The  name  ^olian  was  used  to  cover 
the  rest  of  the  Hellenic  people. 

The  So-called  Dorian  Migration.  —  But  the  places  just  referred 
to  as  the  early  seats  of  the  Hellenic  tribes  do  not  correspond 
to  the  places  which  these  tribes  actually  occupied  in  the  his- 
torical period.  It  is  quite  certain  that  about  the  year  1000  b.c. 
there  was  a  general  shifting  of  the  Greek  population.  This 
movement  is  usually  called  the  "  Dorian  migration.  "  It  is 
known  in  the  traditional  history  as  the  "  Return  of  the  Hera- 
cli'dae,"  being  mixed  up  with  stories  regarding  the  descendants 
of  Her'acles.  Notwithstanding  the  myths  connected  with  it, 
it  must  be  regarded  as  a  real  movement  which  affected  nearly 
all  the  tribes  of  Greece.     It  must  also  be  regarded,  not  as  one 


t»T^OG^RE!SSIVE  ]WC^r»   TQ-o.  3. 


HELLAS  AND  THE  HELLENES  81 

movement,  but  as  a  succession  of  movements,  covering  perhaps 
several  generations.  In  the  first  place,  the  Thessalians,  pressed 
by  northern  tribes,  left  their  original  homes  in  Epirus  and 
crossed  the  Pindus  into  the  valley  of  the  Peneus,  which  was 
henceforth  called  Thessaly.  In  the  next  place,  the  Dorians, 
being  dislodged  from  Thessaly,  sought  new  homes  in  central 
Greece  (Doris).  Then,  uniting  with  the  people  of  ^Etoli^,  they 
crossed  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  and  either  expelled  or  conquered 
the  Achaean  population  living  south  of  it.  In  the  course  of  time 
the  Dorians  subdued  Messenia,  Laconia,  and  Argolis,  leaving 
Elis  to  their  ^tolian  allies,  and  Arcadia  to  its  own  original 
people.  The  Dorians  thus  displaced  the  Achseans  as  the  lead- 
ing race  in  the  Peloponnesus.  Finally,  the  remnants  of  the 
Achseans  found  a  retreat  on  the  shore  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf ; 
and  the  lonians  hitherto  dwelling  in  the  Peloponnesus  sought 
a  refuge  among  their  kinsmen  in  Attica. 

The  Hellenic  Migration  to  Asia  Minor.  —  The  invasion  of  the 
Peloponnesus  by  the  Dorians  resulted  not  only  in  rearranging 
the  tribes  in  Greece  proper,  bat  also  in  bringing  about  a  closer 
union  between  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  The  people  who  had 
been  dispossessed  of  their  old  homes  in  Greece,  or  who  were 
not  satisfied  with  their  new  ones,  sought  other  settlements 
across  the  sea.  The  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  already  occupied  by 
an  ancient  Greek  race,  thus  came  to  be  repeopled  by  the  newer 
Hellenic  tribes.  We  may  trace  three  streams  of  migration 
from  Greece  to  Asia  Minor. 

1.  One  stream  of  migration  was  made  up  of  the  uEoUans,  — 
which  name  came  to  be  a  general  term  applied  to  all  who  were  not 
lonians  or  Dorians,  —  including  even  the  Achseans.  This  mixed 
people  took  possession  of  the  northern  part  of  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor.  They  occupied  the  island  of  Lesbos  and 
founded  the  important  city  of  Mytile'ne.  They  brought  under 
their  control  the  city  of  Cy 'me  on  the  coast.  Their  settlements 
extended  as  far  north  as  the  Hellespont,  and  as  far  south  as 
the  river  Hermus,  upon  which  they  built  the  city  of  Magne'sia, 
and  even  farther  south  they  held  a  single  city,  Smyrna. 


82  BEGINNINGS   OF  GREECE 

2.  A  second  stream  of  migration  comprised  the  lonians, 
who  settled  upon  the  central  part  of  the  coast.  They  took  a 
course  across  the  sea  by  way  of  the  Cyclades,  leaving  on  these 
islands  colonies  of  their  own  people.  They  took  possession  of 
the  islands  of  Chios  and  Samos.  They  occupied  the  coast  land 
from  Phocse'a  to  Mile'tus,  including  the  cities  of  Er'ythrai, 
Clazom'ense,  Col'ophon,  and  Eph'esus. 

3.  A  third  stream  was  that  of  the  Dorians,  who  took  the 
southern  course  by  way  of  Crete,  where  they  left  their  colonies. 
They  also  occupied  the  islands  of  -Khodes  and  Cos,  and  on  the 
neighboring  coast  they  established  the  cities  of  Cnidus  and 
Halicarnas'sus. 

By  these  migrations  which  followed  the  Dorian  conquest  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  the  Hellenic  world  acquired  the  general 
ethnic  character  which  it  possessed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
historical  period  (see  map,  page  80). 

SELECTIONS    FOR    READING 

Smith,  Introduction,  "Outlines  of  Grecian  Geography  "  ;  Ch.  1,  "  Earli- 
est Inhabitants  of  Greece"  (10). i 
Oman,  Ch.  1,  "The  Geography  of  Greece"  (10). 
^Bury,  Introduction,  "  Greece  and  the  ^gean  "  (10). 

Grote,  Part  II.,  Ch.  1,  "  General  Geography  and  Limits  of  Greece  "  (11). 
J  Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  1,   "Hellas";  Ch.  2,  "The  Earliest  Inhabitants"; 
Ch.  4,  "  Asiatic  Coasts  and  the  Islands  of  the  ^^gean  "  (11). 
Curtius,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  I.,  Ch.  1,  "Land  and  People"  ;  Ch.  4,  "Migrations 
among  the  Greek  People  "  (11). 
V  Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  1,  "  The  Country  "  ;  Ch.  6,  "The  Pelasgians"  ;  Ch.  7, 
"  Other  Notions  of  Ancient  Greece  "  (11).       V^^ 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

Tin:  Dorian  Migration. —Cox,  pp.  18-20  (10)  ;  Smith,  Ch.  4  (10)  ; 
Bury,  pp.  181-134  (10);  Oman,  Ch.  5  (10);  Allcroft,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  5 
(10)  ;  Grote,  Part  II.,  Chs.  4,  5  (11)  ;  Curtius,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  131-134  (11)  ; 
Holm,  Vol.  L,  Ch.  12  (11). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  numher  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER   VI 

THE   OLDEST   CIVILIZATION   OF   GREECE 
I.     The  Legends  of  Early  Greece 

Prehistoric  Culture  of  the  Greeks.  —  The  Dorian  invasion  is 
usually  regarded  as  marking  the  dividing  line  between  the  pre- 
historic and  the  historic  period  of  Greece.  Before  this  event 
—  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  for  two  hundred  years  after  it  —  we 
have  no  history  in  the  ordinary  and  strict  sense.  But  the 
question  naturally  arises  whether  anything  is  really  known  as 
to  the  condition  and  culture  of  the  Greek  people  during  the 
prehistoric  age ;  and  whether  this  ancient  people  left  any  per- 
manent influence  upon  the  later  civilization  of  Hellas.  What 
we  know  of  the  oldest  civilization  of  Greece  —  that  is,  the  state 
of  Greek  culture  before  the  so-called  Dorian  migration  (and  for 
some  time  after  it)  —  is  derived  for  the  most  part  from  legends  ; 
from  monuments  or  material  relics ;  and  from  the  early  epic 
poetry,  chiefly  that  ascribed  to  Homer. 

Importance  of  the  Legends.  —  It  is  sometimes  thought  that 
the  early  legends  of  Greece  have  no  historical  signiflcance. 
Whether  this  view  is  correct  or  not  depends  very  much  upon 
how  we  look  at  them.  If  we  look  at  them  as  giving  an  account 
of  actual  and  well-defined  events,  they  have  of  course  little  his- 
torical value.  But  if  we  look  at  them  as  indicating  the  ideas 
and  beliefs  of  the  people,  they  have  a  great  deal  of  significance. 
The  nature  of  the  early  Greek  mind  is  revealed  in  these  tradi- 
tional stories.  In  them  we  see  the  early  fancy  of  a  people 
who  afterward  became  the  masters  of  imaginative  thought. 
Without  a  knowledge  of  these  legends  a  large  amount  of  the 
literature  and  art  of  a  later  period  would  be  unintelligible 
to  us. 
A^  Legends  of  the  Founders  of  Cities.  —  The  Greeks  surrounded 
every  locality,  every  mountain,  stream,  and  vale  with  a  halo  of 

83 


84 


BEGINNINGS   OF  GREECE 


soug  and  story.  An  important  group  of  legends  referred  to 
the  founders  of  cities.  The  foundation  of  Athens,  for  exam- 
ple, was  ascribed  to  Cecrops,  regarded  by  some  as  a  native  of 
Egypt ;  he  is  said  to  have  introduced  into  Attica  the  arts  of 
civilized  life,  and  from  him  the  Acropolis  was  first  called 
Cecro'pia.  Argos  was  believed  to  have  been  founded  by  an- 
other Egyptian,  named  Dan'aus,  who  fled  to  Greece  with  his 
fifty  daughters,  and  who  was  elected  by  the  people  as  their 
king,  and  from  whom  some  of  the  Greeks  received  the  name  of 
Danai.  Thebes,  in  Bceotia,  looked  to  Cadmus,  a  Phoenician, 
as  its  founder ;  he  was  believed  to  have  brought  into  Greece 
the  art  of  writing,  and  from  him  the  citadel  of  Thebes  received 
the  name  of  Cadme'a.  The  Peloponnesus  was  said  to  have 
been  settled  by,  and  to  have  received  its  name  from,  Pelops,  a 
Phrygian  from  Asia ;  he  became  the  king  of  Mycenae,  and  was 

the  father  of  A'treus,  and  the  grand- 
father of  Agamem'non  and  Men- 
ela'us,  chieftains  in  the  Trojan 
war.  Such  traditions  as  these  show 
that  the  early  Greeks  had  some 
notion  of  their  dependence  upon  the 
Eastern  nations. 

Legends  of  Grecian  Heroes.  —  That 
the  early  Greeks  had  an  admiration 
of  personal  prowess  and  valiant  ex- 
ploits is  evident  from  the  legends 
which  they  wove  about  the  names 
of  their  great  heroes.  In  these  fan- 
ciful stories  we  may  see  the  early 
materials  of  Grecian  poetry.  In 
them  we  read  of  philanthropic  deeds, 
of  superhuman  courage,  and  of  ro- 
mantic adventures.  We  read  of  Per'seus,  the  slayer  of  the 
Gorgon  Medu'sa,  whose  locks  were  coiling  serpents,  and  whose 
looks  turned  every  object  to  stone.  We  read  of  Beller'oplion, 
who  slew  the  horrible  Chimae'ra,  and  captured  the  winged  steed 


Bellerophon  and  Pegasus 


THE   OLDEST   CIVILIZATION   OF   GREECE 


85 


Peg'asus,  on  whose  back  he  tried  to  ascend  to  heaven.  We 
read  of  Minos,  the  king  of  Crete,  who  rid  the  sea  of  pirates, 
and  gave  to  his  subjects  a  code  of  laws  received  from  Zeus. 
We  read  of  The'seus,  who  rid  the  land  of  robbers,  and  who 
delivered  Athens  from  the  terrible 
tribute  imposed  by  the  king  of 
Crete  —  a  tribute  which  required 
the  periodical  sacrifice  of  seven 
youths  and  seven  maidens  to  the 
monster  Minotaur.  But  the  great- 
est of  Grecian  heroes  was  Heracles 
(Her'cules).  Every  one  has  read 
of  the  "  twelve  labors "  of  this 
famous  giant,  the  prodigious  tasks 
imposed  upon  him  by  the  king  of 
Mycenae  with  the  consent  of  Zeus.^ 
The  prototype  of  the  Greek  Hera- 
cles may  be  found  in  many  Oriental 
countries  —  in  Egypt,  in  Phoenicia, 
in  Phrygia,  and  in  Lydia.  In  these 
countries  his  power  was  related  to  that  of  the  sun,  especially 
in  springtime.  But  the  fancy  of  the  Greeks  turned  the  sun 
god  of  the  East  into  a  national  hero,  and  conferred  upon  him  a 
human  character. 

Legends  of  National  Exploits.  —  The  legends  are  not  only 
grouped  about  particular  places  and  individual  heroes,  but  have 
for  their  subjects  national  deeds,  marked  by  courage  and  forti- 
tude that  appealed  to  the  pride  and  sympathy  of  every  true 


Heracles 


1  The  twelve  labors  of  Heracles  comprised  the  exploits  in  which  he  (1)  slew 
the  Ne'mean  lion  and  (2)  the  hydra  of  Lerna  ;  (3)  captured  the  roaming 
boar  of  Eryman'thus  and  (4)  the  swift-footed  stag  of  Ceryne'a  ;  (5)  killed  the 
ravenous  birds  of  Stympha'lus  ;  (6)  cleansed  the  stables  of  King  Au'geas  ; 
(7)  brought  to  Mycente  the  wild  bull  of  Crete  and  (8)  the  furious  horses  of 
Diome'des ;  (9)  secured  the  coveted  girdle  from  Hippol'yte,  queen  of  the  Am'a- 
zons,  and  also  (10)  the  fat  cattle  from  the  giant  Ge'ryon  ;  (11)  obtained  the 
golden  apples  from  the  garden  of  the  Hesper'ides  ;  and  (12)  brought  to  earth 
the  three-headed  dog  Cer'berus,  which  guarded  the  gates  of  the  lower  world. 


86  BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 

Greek.  One  of  these  stories  describes  the  so-called  "Argo- 
nautic  expedition"  —  an  adventurous  voyage  of  fifty  heroes, 
who  set  sail  from  Boeotia  under  the  leadership  of  Jason,  in  the 
ship  Ai-go,  for  the  purpose  of  recovering  the  "  golden  fleece  '' 
which  was  carried  away  to  Colchis,  a  far  distant  land  on  the 
shores  of  the  Euxine  (map,  page  137).  Another  legend  —  the 
"  Seven  against  Thebes"  —  narrates  the  tragic  story  of  Qi]d'ipus 
and  his  faithful  daughter  Antig'one,  a  story  which  was  after- 
ward made  immortal  by  the  pen  of  Soph'ocles.  But  the  most 
famous  of  the  legendary  stories  of  Greece  was  that  which  de- 
scribed the  Trojan  war  —  the  military  expedition  of  the  Greeks 
to  Troy,  in  order  to  rescue  Helen,  who  was  the  beautiful  wife  of 
Meiielaus^king  of  Sparta,  and  who  had  been  stolen  away  by 
Paris,  son  of  the  Trojaji  king.  The  details  of  this  story  —  the 
wrath  of  Achil'les,  the  exploits  of  Hector  and  Paris,  the  wiles 
of  Odysseus,  the  destruction  of  Troy,  and  the  return  of  the  heroes 
—  are  the  subject  of  the  great  epic  poems  ascribed  to  Homer. 
All  these  legends,  whether  derived  from  a  foreign  source,  or 
produced  ujion  native  soil,  received  the  impress  of  the  Greek 
mind.  They  form  one  of  the  legacies  from  the  prehistoric  age, 
and  reveal  some  of  the  features  of  the  early  Greek  character. 

II.      MOXTJMEXTS   OF   AxCIENT   GrEECE  ;    THE    MYCENiEAN    AgE 

Recent  Excavations  in  Hellas.  —  A  far  different  and  less 
fanciful  view  of  this  early  age  may  be  seen  in  the  monuments 
and  relics  brought  to  light  within  the  last  few  years.  The 
name  most  closely  connected  with  these  remarkable  discoveries 
is  that  of  Dr.  Schliemann,  the  German  archaeologist.  It  was 
his  childlike  faith  in  Homer  and  the  tale  of  Troy  that  led  him 
to  seek  for  the  Trojan  city  and  the  palace  of  Agamemnon, 
king  of  Mycenae.  The  excavations  made  by  him  (beginning 
in  1871),  together  with  the  work  of  his  successors,  have  not 
only  given  us  new  ideas  regarding  the  poems  of  Homer,  but 
have  also  presented  many  new  and  diificult  problems  regarding 
the  early  ages  of  Greece.     We  can  do  no  more  here  than  to 


THE  OLDEST  CIVILIZATION  OF  GREECE  87 

refer  briefly  to  the  most  important  of  these  excavations,  and 
the  monuments  they  have  disclosed  —  matters  of  great  interest 
to  every  student  of  Greek  history. 

Hissarlik  and  the  City  of  Troy.  —  The  hill  of  Hissarlik,  situated 
in  Troas,  in  northern  Asia  Minor,  was  believed  by  Dr.  Schlie- 
mann  to  be  the  site  of  Troy.  But  instead  of  finding  here  a 
single  city,  he  found  the  ruins  of  nine  cities,  lying  one  above 
another  and  representing  different  stages  of  human  progress. 
The  Jlowest  city  contained  relics  of  the  stone  age  —  stone  axes, 
flint   knives,  earthen  vessels   covered  with  rude  decorations. 


The  Hill,  of  Hissarlik 

The  second  city  —  evidently  destroyed  by  a  conflagration  and 
hence  called  the  "burnt  city"  —  was  surrounded  by  walls 
built  of  brick  and  placed  upon  rough  stone  foundations.  It 
contained  a  palace  surrounding  a  court.  Among  the  ruins 
were  found  battle-axes,  spearheads,  and  daggers  made  of  coppe.r, 
showing  that  its  inhabitants  belonged  to  what  we  call  the  "age 
of  bronze."  There  were  found  also  articles  of  fine  workmanship, 
showing  an  Eastern  influence  —  cups  of  silver,  diadems,  brace- 
lets, earrings  made  of  gold,  and  also  articles  of  ivory  and  jade 
which  could  have  come  only  from  central  Asia.  This  "  burnt 
city  '*  was  believed  by  Dr.  Schliemann  to  have  been  the  Troy 
of  Homer.  But  the  later  w^ork  of  Dr.  Dorpfeld,  the  distin- 
morey's  greek  hist,  — 6 


88 


BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 


guished  colleague  of  Schliemann,  has  shown  that  the  sixth 
city  —  with  its  great  circuit  walls,  its  stately  houses  of  well- 
dressed  stone,  and  its  finely  wrought  vases  —  is  more  likely  to 
be  the  city  described  in  the  Homeric  poems. 

The  Citadel  of  Tiryns. —  But  the  most  important  remains  of 
this  prehistoric  age  have  been  found,  not  in  Asia  Minor,  but 
in  European  Greece,  especially  in  the  two  cities  of  Argolis  — 


^^'<^<^., 


The  "Lion  Gate"  at  Mycen.k 


Tiryns  and  Mycenae.  Tiryns  is  the  older  of  these,  and  its 
walls,  too,  are  better  preserved.  The  citadel  of  Tiryns  was 
surrounded  by  massive  walls.  The  palace  consisted  of  a 
complicated  system  of  courts,  halls,  and  corridors,  suggest- 
ing an  Oriental  palace  rather  than  any  building  in  historic 
Greece.  The  most  artistic  features  of  the  palace  were  alabaster 
friezes,  carved  in  rich  patterns  of  rosettes  and  spirals,  such 
as  are  described  in  the  Homeric  poems  (Odyssey,  Bk.  VII.). 


THE   OLDEST  CIVILIZATION   OF   GREECE 


89 


The  Ruins  and  Relics  of  Mycenae.  —  The  prehistoric  culture  of 
Greece  probably  reached  its  highest  development  at  Mycenae. 
One  of  the  most  conspicuous  objects  here  was  the  well-known 
"  lion  gate,"  through  which  the  citadel  was  entered,  and  which 


Diadem  from  Mycen^ 

had  been  an  object  of  interest  to  the  later  Greeks.  The  form 
of  these  rampant  lions  has  often  been  compared  to  similar 
designs  in  the  East,  especially  in  Assyria  and  Phrygia.  Within 
the  walls  near  the  gate  was  found  a  circle  of  upright  slabs 
inclosing  a  number  of  graves.      These  contained  human  bodies 


The  '-Treasury  of  Atreus  " 


and  a  wealth  of  art  treasures  —  articles  of  gold,  silver,  copper, 
bronze,  terra  cotta,  glass,  ivory,  and  precious  stones ;  articles 
of  ornament,  such  as  diadems,  pendants,  and  rings  of  artis- 
tic design ;  articles  of  use,  such  as  bowls,  pitchers,  cups,  ladles, 


90 


BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 


spoons,  etc.  These  articles  show  a  high  degree  of  mechanical 
skill  and  artistic  taste.  Some  of  them  may  have  been  brought 
from  the  East,  and  some  of  them  may  have  been  the  products 
of  native  industry.  Below  the  citadel  was  found  another  type  of 
sepulchers,  called  from  their  peculiar  form  "bee-hive  tombs," 
one  of  which  the  archaeologists  have  called  the  "  Treasury  of 
Atreus." 

Other  Sites  of  Prehistoric  Remains. —  Eecent  excavations  have 
shown  that  the  kind  of  culture  which  existed  in  the  prehistoric 


The  Vaphio  Gold  Cups 


cities  of  Tiryns  and  Mycenae  prevailed  in  many  other  parts  of 
Greece,  and  in  many  islands  of  the  TEgean.  Relics  similar  to 
those  found  at  Mycenae  have  been  found  in  Boeotia  at  Orchom- 
enus,  in  Attica  at  Athens  and  Eleusis,  in  Laconia  at  Yaphi'o 
(near  Amy'cUe),  in  the  islands  of  Melos,  Thera,  Rhodes,  Crete, 
and  in  numerous  other  less  important  i)laces.  At  Orchomenus 
was  discovered  an  elaborate  and  beautiful  ceiling  said  to  be  of 
a  pure  Egyptian  pattern.  At  Vaphio  were  found  two  remark- 
able gold  cups  covered  with  finely  wrought  relief  work,  and 
regarded  by  some  as  the  most  artistic  work  of  the  prehistoric 
age.  In  Crete  has  been  discovered  a  crude  and  curious  form 
of  hieroglyphic   writing.     But   a   strange    feature    of    these 


THE  OLDEST  CIVILIZATION  OF  GREECE 


91 


remarkable  discoveries  is  not  the  presence  of  writing  in  Crete, 
but  the  almost  total  absence  of  writing  and  inscriptions  every- 
where else  among  a  people  who  possessed  so  many  of  the 
evidences  of  civilization. 


III.   The  Mycen.^an  Civilization 

Stages  of    Prehistoric    Culture.  —  The    type    of    civilization 

brought  to  light  by  these  discoveries  has  been  called  by  some 
Mycenaean,  from  the  city  in  Argolis  where  its  remains  are 
most  conspicuous;  and  by  others  it  has  been  called  ^Egean, 
from  the  fact  that  it  seems  to  have  extended  over  a  large  part 
of  the  iEgean  basin.  It  is  supposed  to  have  reached  its  cul- 
mination perhaps  between  the  years  1500  b.c.  and  1200  b.c. 

But  there  is  reason  to  be-       j ^ 

lieve  that  in  its  earlier 
stages  it  may  have  ex- 
tended back  as  far  as  2000 
B.C.,  or  even  to  an  earlier 
date.  Its  last  and  declin- 
ing stage  was  evidently 
closed  by  the  Dorian  mi- 
gration about  1000  B.C., 
when  it  was  swept  from  Greece,  its  memory  still  lingering  in 
the  minds  of  those  tribes  that  migrated  to  the  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor.  So  far  as  we  are  able  to  distinguish  these  stages,  th6y 
might  be  characterized  as  follows  :  The  first  stage,  which  we 
may  call  the  Pre-Mycenaean  period,  was  an  age  of  stone,  and 
its  primitive  form  of  culture  was  no  doubt  the  product  of 
native  industry,  with  little  or  no  foreign  influence.  The  se-ft-  . 
ond  stage,  which  may  be  regarded  as  distinctly  the  Mycenaean 
period,  was  an  age  of  copper  and  bronze,  and  might  even  be 
called  an  age  of  gold.  During  this  period  Greece  was  evidently 
submerged  by  the  westward  tide  of  Orientalism,  receiving  an 
influx  of  ideas  and  commodities  from  various  Eastern  countries 
by  way  of  Asia  Minor  and  Phoenicia.     The  last  stage,  which 


Prehistoric  Writing  from  Crete 


92 


BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 


may  be  called  the  Achaean  period,  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
age  of  iron,  and  the  transition  to  a  state  of  society  like  that 
described  in  the  poems  of  Homer. 


Designs  ox  Gold  Rings  from  Mycen^ 

Sources  of  Mycenaean  Culture. —  Regarding  the  origin  of  this 
ancient  culture  of  Greece,  we  have  no  right  to  speak  with  con- 
fidence, since  scholars  are  by  no  means  agreed  upon  this  ques- 
tion. The  great  variety  of  objects  discovered,  and  the  various 
styles  of  art  revealed,  have  naturally  led  to  a  great  variety  of 
theories  as  to  its  source.  It  has  been  referred  to  the  Dorians, 
to  the  Achseans,  to  the  Pelasgians,  to  the  Carians,  to  the  Phoe- 
nicians, and  even  to  the  Hittites.^     Such  a  great   variety    of 


Gold  Intaglios  from  Mycen^ 

theories  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  Mycenaean  culture 
was,  in  fact,  a  very  composite  culture,  being  produced  either  by 
many  peoples,  or  under  the  influence  of  many. 

1  The  Dorian  theory  has  been  advocated  by  Beloch  and  Niese ;  the  Aehajan 
theory  by  Percy  Gardner,  and  in  a  modified  form  by  Hall,  and  by  Tsountas 
and  Manatt ;  the  Pelasfjian  theory  by  Ridgeway ;  the  Carian  theory  by  Koehler ; 
the  Phoenician  theory  by  Helbig  and  M.  Pottier ;  and  the  Hittite  theory  by 
Reinbach  and  de  Cara.  Hall,  one  of  the  most  recent  writers  on  this  subject, 
very  prudently  says:  "Dogmatism  on  so  uncertain  a  subject  as  the  'Myce- 
naean question  '  is  impossible:  new  discoveries  may  upset  any  pronouncement 
on  the  subject  a  week  after  it  has  been  made." 


THE   OLDEST  CIVILIZATION   OF   GREECE  93 

It  seems  reasonable  to  suppose,  in  the  first  place,  that  the 
primitive  culture  of  Greece  was  produced  by  the  primitive 
peoples  of  Greece.  So  far  as  we  know  these  peoples  were  the 
early  tribes  which  went  under  the  names  of  Pelasgians,  Cari- 
ans,  Minyge,  and  Leleges.  To  these  native  peoples,  then,  may 
be  attributed  the  material  relics  which  bear  the  marks  of  the 
stone  age  —  the  stone  implements,  the  crude  pottery,  and 
the  simple  styles  of  decoration.  In  the 
next  place,  it  seems  quite  as  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  the  higher  forms 
of  Mycenaean  art  were  due  to  the 
strong  Orientalizing  influence  which 
extended  to  the  West,  including  with- 
in its  sweep  the  coasts  and  islands  of 
the  ^gean.  The  most  striking  speci-  Sphinx  from  Mycen^ 
mens  of  Mycenaean  art  are  seen  in  articles  capable  of  transporta- 
tion, which  could  be  brought  from  various  Eastern  countries  by 
Phoenician  merchants,  and  also  might  furnish  models  for  native 
Greek  artisans.  Finally,  the  transition  to  the  iron  age  may 
be  referred  to  the  Achseans,  who  became  for  a  time  the  ruling 
people  of  the  Peloponnesus,  who  took  up  the  Mycenaean  civili- 
zation and  added  certain  features  to  it,  and  some  of  whom, 
being  driven  from  their  homes  by  the  Dorian  invaders,  fled  to 
Attica,  and  then  to  Asia  Minor,  bearing  with  them  the  memo- 
ries of  this  civilization,  which  were  afterward  impressed  upon 
the  poems  of  Homer. 

Influence  of  the  Mycenaean  Civilization.  —  On  account  of  the 
many  brilliant  features  of  this  culture,  we  may  be  inclined  to 
overestimate  its  real  historical  significance.  While  we  may 
see  in  it  many  native  Greek  elements,  it  was  no  doubt  largely 
the  product  of  foreign  influences  superimposed  upon  the  sim- 
pler culture  of  the  Greek  people.  When  the  wave  of  Orien- 
talism receded  from  Greece,  it  left  little  more  than  monuments 
and  memories.  The  essential  elements  of  the  Greek  people 
remained  in  their  simple  primitive  character.  The  royal  pal- 
aces at  Tiryns  and  Mycenae  were  useless  to  the  Dorian  invaders. 


94  BEGINNINGS  OF   GREECE 

The  golden  diadems  and  other  products  of  Oriental  art  had 
little  attraction  to  the  simple  Greek  taste.  The  foreign  ele- 
ments in  the  Mycenaean  culture,  which  found  no  response  in  the 
genuine  Greek  mind,  therefore  passed  away  and  were  buried. 

SELECTIONS    FOR    READING 

Smith,  Ch.  2,  "The  Grecian  Heroes"  (10). i 

Cox,  Ch.  3,  Mythology  and  Tribal  Legends  of  the  Greeks  (10). 

Bury,  Ch.  1,  "Beginnings  of  Greece  and  the  Heroic  Age"  (10). 

Timayenis,  Vol.  I.,  Part  I.,  "The  Mythological  Age  "  (11). 

Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  3,  "Migrations  and  Legendary  History"  (11). 

Curtius,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  L,  Ch.  2,  "  Prehistoric  Age  of  the  Hellenes  "  (11). 

Holm,  Vol.  L,  Ch.  4,  "Earliest  Traditional  History";  Ch.  10,  "Most 
Important  Legends  of  Greece"  (11). 

Grote,  Part  II.,  Ch.  16,  "  Grecian  Myths  as  Understood,  Felt,  and  Inter- 
preted by  the  Greeks  themselves  "  (11). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  Mycenaean    Age.— Oman,   Ch.  2   (10);   Bury,   Ch.   1,   §§   1,   2 

(10)  ;  Tarbell,  Ch.  2  (19)  ;  Warr,  Ch.  1   (15)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  L,  Chs.  8,  9 

(11)  ;  Diehl,  Ch.  1,  2  (14).     See  also  Appendix  (14). 


CHAPTER   VII 

HOMER   AND  THE    HOMERIC   CULTURE 

I.     The  Homeric  Poems 

The  Culture  of  Asia  Minor.  — We  come  now  to  consider  an- 
other phase  of  the  early  civilization  of  Hellas,  namely,  that 
which  is  pictured  in  the  Homeric  poems.  The  first  thing 
which  we  must  observe  regarding  these  poems  is  the  fact  that 
they  were  produced,  not  in  European  Greece  where  the  Myce- 
naean culture  had  reached  its  highest  development,  but  in 
Asia  Minor.    We  remember  that  Asia  Minor  had  in  very  early 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appendix, 
where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


HOMER  AND  THE  HOMERIC  CULTURE        95 

times  been  settled  by  primitive  Greek  tribes.  We  have  also 
noticed  the  fact  that,  after  the  Dorian  invasion  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Greece  had  been  led  to 
migrate  to  the  Asiatic  coasts.  We  thus  find  in  Asia  Minor 
two  kinds  of  Greek  people  :  (1)  a  primitive  Greek  people, 
descendants  of  the  earliest  Greek  settlers,  and  (2)  a  large 
body  of  Greek  emigrants  who  had  come  across  the  ^^gean  Sea, 
bringing  with  them  the  memories  and  traditions  of  the  Myce- 
naean age.  We  shall  find  that  during  the  transitional  period 
which  followed  the  Dorian  invasion  Asia  Minor  became  the 
chief  seat  of  intellectual  life  and  activity.  Its  culture,  how- 
.ever,  did  not  consist  in  reproducing  the  remarkable  works  of 
Mycenaean  art ;  it  consisted  rather  in  rehearsing  the  traditional 
glories  of  that  old  Mycenaean  age. 

The  Rise  of  Epic  Poetry.  —  From  this  disposition  to  sing  the 
praises  of  the  past  arose  the  first  form  of  Grecian  poetry. 
The  bards  of  Ionia  recounted  the  mythical  stories  of  the  gods, 
the  legends  of  ancient  heroes,  and  the  traditions  of  Troy  and 
Mycenae.  They  accompanied  their  words  with  regular  strokes 
upon  the  lyre ;  and  their  fanciful  stories  fell  into  rhythm  and 
took  the  form  of  the  hexameter  verse.  The  group  of  Ionian 
bards  in  Asia  Minor  received  the  name  of  the  "  cyclic  poets  " ; 
and  the  group  of  narrative  poems  which  they  produced  is 
known  as  the  "epic  cycle."  These  lays  were  descriptive  in 
character  and  inspired  with  an  heroic  spirit ;  they  were  full  of 
imagination,  reciting  the  deeds  of  gods  and  men  and  throwing 
a  halo  about  the  past. 

The  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey.  —  Out  of  this  cycle  of  poems  there 
emerged  two  great  epics,  known  as  the  "  Il'iad "  and  the 
'•Od'yssey."  Being  the  fittest  expressions  of  the  popular 
thought  and  feeling,  they  survived.  They  are,  in  fact,  regarded 
by  many  critics  as  the  greatest  epic  poems  in  the  world's 
literature.  The  Iliad  is  a  poem  of  war,  and  the  Odyssey  is  a 
poem  of  peace.  The  former  describes  the  closing  scenes  of  the 
Trojan  war,  and  revolves  about  the  wrath  of  Achilles,  the  son 
of  Pe'leus,  who  was  the  king  of  Thessaly.     The  leader  of  the 


96 


BEGINNINGS  OF   GREECE 


Departure  of  Achilles  (From  an  ancient  vase) 

Grecian  armies  was  Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenae,  and  hence 
we  find  many  traditions  which  reach  back  to  the  Mycenaean 
age.  The  Odyssey  narrates  events  which  were  supposed  to 
follow  the  Trojan  war,  esj^ecially  the  wanderings  of  Odysseus 
(Ulysses)  on  his  homeward  return  to  Ithaca. 

The  Homeric  Question.  —  These  poems  stand  out  prominently 
from    an   otherwise   dark    and    obscure    period.      They  have 

naturally  been  made  the  sub- 
ject of  the  most  searching  in- 
quiries. Was  there  ever  such 
a  poet  as  Homer?  Were  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey  both  pro- 
duced by  the  same  person  ? 
Was  either  poem  originally  a 
single  production  ?  Was  not 
each  one  rather  a  collection 
of  separate  ballads,  afterward 
brought  together  by  some  skill- 
ful hand  ?  These  queries  com- 
prise the  chief  points  in  what 
is  called  the  "  Homeric  ques- 
tion." The  ancients  generally 
believed  that  the  two  epics 
were  produced  by  the  same  poet,  and  that  this  poet  was  Homer. 
Certain  critics  of  Alexandria,  observing  the  difference  between 


JiOMKR 


HOMER  AND  THE  HOMERIC  CULTURE        97 

the  two  poems,  declared  that  they  were  produced  by  two  differ- 
ent poets.  Modern  critics  have  submitted  the  theory  that  each 
poem  was  a  collection  of  lays,  originally  distinct,  but  collected 
into  a  coherent  form  during  the  historical  period.  This  ques- 
tion will  perhaps  never  be  settled  to  the  satisfaction  of  every  one. 
It  is  no  doubt  true  that  there  were  many  bards  who  recited  the 
legends  of  the  Trojan  war.  But  it  seems  hardly  possible  that 
any  one  age  ever  produced  more  than  one  poet  of  such  tran- 
scendent genius  as  the  bard  w^hom  we  call  Homer.  It  certainly 
seems  more  reasonable  to  believe  in  one  Homer  than  in  many. 
Historical  Value  of  the  Homeric  Poems.  —  Whether  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey  were  the  product  of  one  poet  or  many,  they  were 
evidently  produced  in  the  transitional  period  (probably  about 
850  B.C.)  between  the  prehistoric  age  of  Tir^ms  and  Mycenae, 
and  the  historic  age  of  Sparta  and  Athens.  They  are  made  up 
largely  of  legends  and  traditions,  and  so  far  are  no  more 
valuable  than  any  other  legends  and  traditions.  But  traditions 
are  not  necessarily  false.  The  recently  discovered  relics  of 
the  prehistoric  age  show  how  faithfully  the  memories  of 
"  golden  Mycenae  "  were  preserved  by  the  people  who  migrated 
to  Asia  Minor,  and  were  expressed  in  the  Homeric  poems. 
But  the  great  historical  value  of  these  poems  does  not  consist 
merely  in  the  narrative  of  traditional  events  and  the  pictures 
of  past  glories.  It  consists  rather  in  the  great  number  of 
allusions  made  to  the  life  and  customs  of  the  early  Greek 
people.  Homer  painted  the  past  in  the  colors  of  his  own  time. 
From  the  numerous  allusions  made  to  industry  and  art,  to 
society  and  government,  to  religion  and  morality,  we  can  get 
a  comprehensive  view  of  that  early  culture  which  existed 
among  the  prehistoric  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor,  and  which  was 
bequeathed  to  the  Greeks  of  historical  times.  It  has  been 
forcibly  said  that  "  while  the  pre-Doric  art  in  Europe  was  not 
continued  in  later  times,  and  the  later  genuine  Greek  art 
followed  other  paths  than  those  of  Mycenae  and  Orchomenus, 
the  earliest  poetry  of  Asia  Minor  is  still  the  truest  expression 
of  Greek  life  that  exists  "  (Holm). 


98  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

II.    Homeric  Industry  and  Art 

Means  of  Subsistence.  —  We  can  obtain  from  the  Homeric 
poems  an  idea  of  the  industry  of  the  time,  and  the  degree  of 
progress  made  by  the  early  Greeks  in  the  art  of  living.  We  may 
see  that  hunting  and  fishing  were  occupations  that  survived 
from  a  primitive  period.  We  may  also  see  that  the  people  lived 
ux)on  the  flesh  of  animals  which  they  had  domesticated,  such 
as  cows,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine.  But  their  chief  food  supply 
was  derived  from  agricultural  products.  They  cultivated  cer- 
tain grains,  such  as  wheat  and  barley,  from  which  they  made 
flour.  They  also  raised  certain  fruits,  such  as  the  fig,  the  grape, 
the  olive,  the  pear,  and  the  apple.  Orchards  and  vineyards 
were  especially  prized,  not  only  for  their  products,  but  also  for 
their  beauty.  Wine  was  the  chief  beverage  of  the  people ;  but 
drunkenness  was  despised. 

Use  of  Metals ;  Manufactures.  —  The  Homeric  Greeks  pos- 
sessed the  use  of  at  least  six  metals  —  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron, 
copper,  and  tin.  The  most  of  these  metals  they  obtained  from 
other  lands.  They  worked  them  in  a  simple  way,  with  the 
hammer  and  anvil,  using  also  the  bellows  and  tongs.  These 
simple  processes  seem  to  indicate  that  the  finer  and  more  artis- 
tic metal  work  was  fashioned  by  foreign  artisans.  Homer's 
description  of  the  famous  shield  of  Achilles  (Iliad,  Bk.  XVIII.) 
shows  that  the  poet  was  acquainted  with  the  finest  relief  work 
of  the  East ;  but  it  also  seems  to  show  that  he  was  not  familiar 
with  the  methods  by  which  such  work  was  manufactured. 

Trade  and  Commerce.  —  The  early  Greeks  traded  with  one 
another  by  barter ;  and  they  measured  the  value  of  their  com- 
modities in  terms  of  oxen.  We  find  no  evidence  that  they 
had  yet  come  to  be  a  commercial  people.  They  obtained  their 
foreign  products  chiefly  through  Phoenician  merchants,  who 
brought  to  them  the  metals  and  other  commodities  which  they 
could  not  produce  themselves. 

Architecture  and  the  Fine  Arts.  —  We  have  little  knowledge  of 
the  buildings  of  this  period,  which  were  no  doubt  simple  and 


HOMER  AND  THE  HOMERIC  CULTURE       99 

unpretentious.  It  is  true  that  Homer  describes  the  princely 
palaces  of  Argolis.  but  these  are  connected  with  the  life  of  the 
old  traditional  heroes  who  ruled  in  the  Mycenaean  age.  The 
temple  was  not  yet  a  feature  of  Greek  architecture.  The  people 
lived  a  simple  life  in  hill  towns  and  dwelt  mostly  in  the  open 
air.  The  mention  which  the  poet  makes  of  the  finer  arts  — 
the  exquisite  goblets,  the  beautiful  glasses,  the  candelabra  in  the 
form  of  statuettes — is  connected  with  the  description  of  the 
ancient  palaces,  and  suggestive  of  the  Oriental  skill  which 
marked  the  furnishings  of  those  old  and  splendid  structures  — 
buildings  which  had  long  since  fallen  into  decay.  All  this 
Mycenaean  art  was  practically  a  thing  of  tradition;  and  the 
art  of  historic  Greece  had  not  yet  been  born. 

III.     Homeric  Society  and  Goverxmext 

The  Early  Greek  Society.  —  In  the  poems  of  Homer  we  find 
the  picture  of  a  simple  and  primitive  society.  It  was  a  society 
similar  to  that  which  we  find  among  other  early  Aryan  peoples. 
Its  primary  element  was  the  family,  comprising  the  house- 
hold father,  the  mother,  the  children,  and  the  slaves.  The 
father  had  entire  control  of  the  members ;  he  had  charge  of  the 
domestic  worship  and  of  the  lands  and  other  property  of  the 
■  family.  From  the  family  grew  up  the  clan  or  gens,  which  was 
simply  a  group  of  families  related  by  blood  and  a  common 
worship,  and  also  recognizing  a  common  ancestor.  Several 
clans  might  unite  for  common  protection  in  a  larger  fraternal 
community,  called  a  "  phratry."  But  the  political  organization 
reached  its  most  complete  form  in  the  tribe,  or  phyle. 

The  Tribal  State  —  King,  Council  and  Assembly.  —  The  tribe 
was  a  collection  of  communities  usually  settled  about  a  fortified 
hill,  and  having  a  common  government.  At  its  head  was  the 
chief  {basileus).  He  performed  the  common  religious  rites, 
settled  disputes,  and  commanded  the  people  in  time  of  war. 
But  the  power  of  the  king  was  not  absolute ;  it  was  restrained 
by  a  council  (horde),  made  up  of  the  clan  leaders,  or  other  influ- 


100  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

ential  men.  Matters  of  great  importance,  like  the  declaration  of 
war,  or  the  distribution  of  plunder,  might  be  left  to  the  assembly 
(ag'ora),  which  comprised  all  the  people  capable  of  bearing 
arms.  The  king,  the  council,  and  the  assembly  thus  formed  the 
political  elements  of  the  tribal  state.  How  important  these 
elements  were  in  the  political  history  of  Greece  we  shall  see 
hereafter. 

The  Confederation  of  Tribes.  —  While  the  tribe  was  the  most 
important  political  group,  there  was  a  tendency  from  very  early 
times  for  different  tribes  to  unite  under  a  common  head.  For 
example,  in  their  expedition  against  Troy,  the  Greek  tribes 
united  under  Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenee.  But  anything 
like  a  permanent  union  could  be  effected  only  by  adopting  a 
common  religion.  The  old  tribes  of  Epirus,  for  example,  had 
gathered  about  the  oracle  of  Zeus  at  Dodona.  The  tribes  of 
Thessaly  had  been  bound  together  by  a  common  worship  at  Mt. 
Olympus.  We  shall  hereafter  see  other  federal  unions  grow- 
ing up  in  Greece.  But  still  the  confederation,  while  based 
upon  a  national  sympathy,  never  reached  the  character  of  a 
national  state. 

IV.     Homeric  Religion  and  Morality 

The  Early  Greek  Religion.  —  We  may  also  get  from  the 
Homeric  poems  an  idea  of  the  early  Greek  religion.  The 
germs  of  this  religion  existed  no  doubt  in  the  ancestor  worship 
and  nature  worship  of  the  older  Aryans.  The  Greeks  kept 
alive  the  worship  of  ancestors ;  and  the  family  was  bound  to- 
gether by  the  sacred  domestic  rites  growing  out  of  this  worship. 
The  larger  social  groups  were  bound  together  by  the  worship  of 
the  powers  of  nature.  The  early  Greeks,  like  the  Hindus,  saw 
in  the  heavens,  in  the  sun,  in  the  clouds,  in  the  flickering  fire, 
the  presence  of  supernatural  beings.  But  while  the  Homeric 
religion  is  evidently  an  outgrowth  of  earlier  religious  ideas,  it 
had  stamped  upon  it  the  peculiar,  features  of  the  Greek  mind 
—  fertility   of    fancy    and    genial    human    sympathy.     The 


HOMER  AND  THE  HOMERIC  CULTURE 


101 


Greeks  saw  in  their  gods  beings  like  themselves  ;  and  they 
coupled  with  their  nature  worship  an  elaborate  and  fanciful 
mythology.  The  divine  and  the  human  were  brought  into 
close  relations.  The  gods  dwelt  not  in  the  inaccessible  sky, 
but  on  the  top  of  Mount  Olympus,  where  the  heavens  touch 
the  earth. 

The  divine  circle  of  Olympus  consisted  of  the  twelve 
greater  deities  —  six  gods  and  six  goddesses.  Their  per- 
sonal traits  are  drawn  by  Homer,  and  came  afterward  to  be 
appropriately  expres'sed  in  the  forms  of  Greek  art.  The 
future  culture  of  Greece  is  so  thoroughly  imbued  with  religious 
ideas  that  it  is  well  for  us  to 
keep  in  mind  the  personality  of 
the  Olympian  deities.  In  study- 
ing their  character  we  must  see 
that  they  not  only  represent  the 
powers  of  nature,  but  are  clothed 
with  special  human  qualities  and 
are  closely  related  to  special 
spheres  of  human  life. 

The  Gods  of  Olympus.  —  We 
may  see  "in  each  of  the  gods  of 
Olympus  the  union  of  certain 
natural    and    human    elements. 

(1)  Zeus  (Jupiter)  is  the  supreme 
god  of  the  heavens,  who  gathers 
the  clouds  and  hurls  the  lightnings ;  but  he  is  also  the  king 
and   father   of   men,  who   governs  the  affairs  of   the  world. 

(2)  Apollo,  the  god  of  sunlight,  is  also  the  god  of  prophecy, 
the  patron  of  human  art  and  science,  of  poetry  and  music 
and  medicine.  (3)  Ares  (Mars),  the  god  of  the  storm  and  the 
tempest,  also  presides  over  human  turmoils,  over  wars  and 
battles.  (4)  Hermes  (Mercury),  the  god  of  the  wind,  is  not 
only  the  winged  messenger  of  the  gods,  but  the  patron  of  in- 
ventions and  commerce,  and  the  master  of  cunning  and  deceit. 
(5)  Posei'don  (Neptune),  the  god  of  the  sea,  not  only  governs  the 


Zeus 


102 


BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 


ocean,  but  he  also  blesses  mankind  by  causing  the  springs  to 
burst  forth  from  the  dry  land.     (6)  Hephces'tus  (Vulcan),  the 

god  of  fire,  presides  over 
the  working  of  metals  and 
the  mechanic  arts  which 
are  so  useful  to  man. 

The  Goddesses  of  Olympus. 
— In  the  goddesses  of  Olym- 
pus, also,  we  may  see  how 
nature  is  brought  into  re- 
lation with  human  life. 
(1)  Hera  (Juno),  the  god- 
dess of  the  sky,  is  looked 
upon  as  the  faithful  wife 
of  Zeus,  the  ideal  of  strict 
womanly  virtues  and  the 
jealous  guardian  of  her  hus- 
band's honor.  (2)  Athe'na 
(Minerva),  the  goddess  of 
the  pure  daylight,  is  repre- 
sented as  having  been  born 
from  the  forehead  of  Zeus  ; 
she  became  the  ideal  of 
wisdom,  of  feminine  courage  and  honor,  aiding  in  the  house- 
hold arts  of  spinning  and  embroidery,  and  inspiring  men  with 
heroism  in  war.  (3)  Ar'temis  (Diana),  the  goddess  of  the 
moonlight,  roams  with  mortals  through  fields  and  groves,  aid- 
ing the  traveler  in  his  journey  and  the  huntsman  in  the  chase. 
(4)  Aj)hrodVte  (Veuus),  the  goddess  of  the  dawn,  is  the  imper- 
sonation of  human  love  and  beauty.  (5)  Deme'ter  (Ceres),  the 
goddess  of  the  earth,  watches  the  growth  of  grain  and  is  the 
friend  of  the  husbandman.  (6)  Hes'fia  (Vesta),  the  goddess  of 
fire,  is  the  guardian  of  the  hearth,  of  domestic  life  and  happiness. 
Inferior  Deities  and  Mythical  Beings.  —  But  the  Greek  ideas 
of  the  supernatural  were  not  limited  to  the  Olympian  circle. 
There  were  Hades  and  Perseph'one  (Pluto  and   Proser'pina), 


HOMER  AND  THE  HOMERIC  CULTURE      103 

the  god  and  goddess  of  the  lower  world ;  Diony'sus  (Bacchus), 
the  god  of  wine ;  Fa7i,  the  god  of  the  shepherds ;  Iris,  the 
goddess  of  the  rainbow;  Themis,  the  goddess  of  justice  —  and 
many  others.  There  were  also  strange  mythical  beings,  who 
lived  below  the  plane  of  the  gods  —  Titans  and  Giants,  Tritons 
and  Sirens,  Nymphs  and  Graces,  Demons  and  Furies,  the 
nine  Muses  and  the  three  Fates,  and  Satyrs  and  Fauns,  and 
Centaurs  and  Dragons.  The  Greek  imagination  peopled  the 
sky,  the  earth,  and  the  sea  with  supernatural  beings.  Men 
lived  everywhere  in  the  midst  of  an  invisible  world. 

Ideas  of  the  Future  Life.  —  The  religious  imagery  of  the 
Greeks  included  pictures  of  the  future  life.  At  death,  the  soul 
is  conducted  to  the  realm  of  Hades,  which  is  the  world  of  the 
departed  spirits.  At  its  entrance  lay  the  dog  Cerberus,  the 
three-headed  monster  that  prevented  the  spirits  from  return- 
ing to  the  upper  world.  Upon  the  sentence  of  Minos,  the 
soul  is  given  a  place  in  Elys'ium  (e-lizh'i-um),  the  field  of 
the  blest,  or  is  condemned  to  Tar'tarus,  the  gulf  of  torment. 
The  ingenious  tortures  inflicted  upon  those  who  have  incurred 
the  anger  of  the  gods  are  described  by  Homer  (Odyssey, 
Bk,  XI.) 

Religious  Rites  and  Customs.  —  If  the  anger  of  the  gods  may 
result  in  eternal  misery,  the  most  important  thing  in  life  is 
to  retain  their  favor.  This  idea  lies  at  the  root  of  the  religious 
rites  of  the  early  Greeks.  Prayers  and  sacrifices  must  be 
offered  to  retain  the  divine  favor.  The  sacrifices  might  con- 
sist either  in  offerings  of  fruit  or  grain,  or  in  the  slaughter 
of  living  victims.  The  will  of  the  gods  might  be  ascertained 
by  divination,  that  is,  by  the  interpretation  of  signs  presented 
by  natural  phenomena,  as  the  flight  of  birds,  the  rolling  of 
thunder,  etc. ;  or  one  might  have  recourse  to  an  oracle,  estab- 
lished at  some  fixed  place,  presided  over  by  priests  or  priest- 
esses. The  priestly  class,  however,  never  attained  in  Greece 
such  an  exclusive  position  and  authority  as  it  had  in  the  East. 

The  Morals  of  the  Homeric  Age.  —  The  people  of  the  Homeric 
period  were  no  better  and  probably  no  worse  than  any  other 
morey's  grkek  hist. — 7 


104  BEGINNINGS  OF   GREECE 

early  people.  Their  home  life  was  bright  and  cheerful ;  and 
women  were  held  in  high  esteem.  The  men  were  as  coura- 
geous in  war  as  any  men  could  well  be,  without  any  better 
organization  and  discipline  than  those  which  then  prevailed. 
We  find  examples  of  great  individual  prowess;  but  we  also 
find  instances  of  vindictive  cruelty  to  a  fallen  foe.  The 
Greeks  were  hospitable  to  the  stranger,  and  listened  to  the 
prayer  of  the  suppliant.  But  they  were  often  tricky  and 
deceitful  in  their  dealings,  and  even  looked  upon  piracy  as  an 
honorable  occupation.  The  question  of  right  and  wrong  was 
determined  not  so  much  by  any  proper  moral  code  as  by  the 
fear  and  favor  of  the  gods,  which  formed  the  highest  motives 
of  human  life. 

SELECTIONS   FOR   READING 

Bury,  Ch.  1,  §  7,  "Homer"  (10).  i 

Oman,  Ch.  3,    "The   Homeric  Poems  and  the  Greeks  of  the  Homeric 

Age"   (10). 
Warr,  Ch.  2,  "The  Homeric  Poetry"  (15). 
Abbott,  Vol.  L,  Ch.  5,  "  Tlie  Homeric  Poems"  (11). 
Grote,  Part  I.,  Ch.  21,  "Grecian  Epic  —  Homeric  Poems "  (11). 
Mahaffy,  Survey,  Ch.  2,  "The  Homeric  Age"   (10). 
Smith,  Ch.  3,  "  Society  in  the  Heroic  Age  "   (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  13,   "Civilization  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks — Homeric 
•i    Poetry";  Ch.  14,  "Institutions  and  Mode  of  Life  of  the  Early  Greeks, 

especially  as  Described  by  Homer"  (11). 
Jebb,  Greek  Poetry,  Ch.  1,  "The  Distinctive  Qualities  of  the  Greek  Race 

as  Expressed  by  Homer"  (28). 
Keller,  Ch.  2,  "Industrial  Organization"  (15). 
Homer,  Iliad,  Bk.  I.,  in  Bryant's  translation  (13). 


SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  Ancient  Greek  Beligion.  —  Oman,  Ch.  4  (10)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  I. 
Ch.  11  (11)  ;  Grote,  Part  I.,  Ch.  1  (11)  ;  Coulanges,  Bk.  I.  (20)  ;  Keller, 
Ch.  3  (15)  ;  Murray,  pp.  37-242,  251  (25).     See  also  Appendix  (25). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appendix, 
where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


PERIOD  II.     THE  FORMATION   OP   THE   GREEK   STATES 
(776-500  B.C.) 


CHAPTER   VIII 

THE  CHARACTER   OF  THE   GREEK   CITY   STATE 

I.   The  Elements  of  the  City  State 

Transition  to  Historical  Greece.  —  We  have  now  considered, 
so  far  as  we  are  able,  the  condition  of  Greece  in  what  is 
called  the  Prehistoric  Age.  We  have  seen  the  existence  of 
myths  and  traditions,  which  show  the  poetical  tendencies 
of  the  Greek  mind,  but  which  give  us  little  knowledge  of  real 
facts  and  events.  We  have  also  seen  the  remains  of  an  old 
civilization,  which  was  strongly  influenced  by  the  East,  and 
which  was  swept  away  by  the  Dorian  invasion.  We  have, 
moreover,  seen  how  the  memories  of  this  old  Mycenaean  civili- 
zation were  carried  to  Asia  Minor  and  were  preserved  in  the 
Homeric  poems.  While  we  call  this  ancient  and  obscure 
period  the  prehistoric  age,  we  must  remember  that  out  of  it 
grew  the  Greece  of  history.  There  is  no  definite  date  or 
event  which  marks  the  transition  from  prehistoric  to  historic 
times.^  But  from  about  the  eighth  century  b.c.  we  begin  to 
see  a  little  more  clearly  historical  events  and  characters. 
From  this  time  also   the  institutions  and  culture   of   Greece 

1  We  have  taken  the  date  usually  given  for  the  first  Olympiad  (776  B.C.) 
to  mark  the  beginning  of  the  historic  period  simply  because  this  date  is  as 
convenient  as  any  other.  There  is,  however,  some  question  whether  even 
this  date  is  trustworthy.  See  Mahaffy,  Problems,  Ch.  5,  "Theoretical  Chro- 
nology," and  Appendix  "On  the  Olympian  Register." 

105 


106  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

begin  to  take  more  definite  forms,  such  as  were  preserved  in 
the  historical  period. 

Importance  of  the  City  State.  —  The  first  and  one  of  the  most 
important  facts  which  we  observe  in  the  early  historical  period 
is  the  formation  of  little  city  states.  Nearly  everywhere  in 
Greece  the  people  were  coming  to  be  better  organized.  They 
were  beginning  to  establish  more  regular,  goveri;ments.  But 
these  governments  were  entirely  different  from  the  great 
empires  of  the  East.  They  were  different  also  from  the  old 
monarchies  of  Tiryns  and  Mycenaeo  The  city  state  was  simply 
a  city  with  its  neighboring  territory  organized  under  an  in- 
dependent government,  in  which  the  people  came  to  have  a 
share.  It  grew  out  of  a  simple  condition  of  society  like  that 
which  is  described  in  the  Homeric  poems  (see  p.  99).  Before 
we  consider  especially  the  growth  of  the  two  most  important 
city  states  of  Greece, —  Sparta  and  Athens, — let  us  look  at  the 
elements  which  made  up  the  city  state  in  general. 

The  Family  as  the  Basis  of  the  State.  —  We  can  best  under- 
stand the  way  in  which  the  city  and  its  government  grew  up 
if  we  trace  them  back  to  their  origin  in  the  family.  The 
family  was  in  fact  the  foundation  of  the  state.  To  describe 
the  family  in  the  simplest  terms,  we  may  say  that  it  was  a 
group  of  persons  bound  together  by  kinship,  by  a  common  reli- 
gion, and  by  a  common  authority.  The  authority  which  gov- 
erned the  family  was  that  of  the  father.  He  was  the  priest  of 
the  family  worship,  the  judge  of  the  family  disputes,  and  the 
guide  in  all  family  matters.  With  the  family  as  a  starting 
point,  we  may  trace  the  several  steps  whicli  finally  led  to  the 
development  of  the  city  as  it  was  in  Greece; 

The  Greek  Gens,  or  Clan.  —  As  the  family  increased,  it  ex- 
panded into  the  clan,  or  gens.  This  was  simply  the  larger 
body  of  family  relatives,  kept  together  by  a  common  feeling 
of  kinship.  Its  members  regarded  themselves  as  having  de- 
scended from  a  common  ancestor.  They  had  a  common  wor- 
ship and  a  common  burial  place.  By  living  together  in  the 
same  neighborhood,  they  formed  a  little  village   community, 


CHARACTER   OF   THE   GREEK   CITY   STATE  107 

and  had  a  simple  form  of  government.  They  were  controlled 
by  a  council,  composed  of  the  fathers  of  the  different  house- 
holds. They  also  had  a  headman,  selected  by  the  council,  to 
preside  over  their  common  religious  rites,  to  settle  disputes 
between  the  different  families,  and  to  command  them,  if  neces- 
sary, in  time  of  war. 

The  Greek  Phratry,  or  Brotherhood. — In  times  of  great  danger 
different  clans  or  villages  would  be  compelled  to  unite  for  com- 
mon protection.  They  would  select  some  defensible  place,  like 
a  hill,  for  a  common  rallying  point.  Here  they  would  swear 
allegiance  to  one  another  in  the  name  of  some  common  god. 
They  would  thus  establish  a  common  worship.  They  would 
then  select  a  common  war  leader,  who  would  be  assisted  by  a 
council  made  up  of  the  different  village  chiefs.  Such  a  nnion 
of  neighboring  villages  was  called  a  "  phratry,"  which  means 
a  brotherhood,  or  fraternal  league. 

The  Greek  Phyle,  or  Tribe.  —  The  same  causes  which  led  to 
the  union  of  villages  into  a  phratry,  would  lead  to  the  union  of 
phratries  into  a  still  larger  group.  This  larger  group  was  the 
phyle,  or  tribe.  Like  the  village  and  the  phratry,  it  was  made 
strong  by  a  common  worship.  The  chief  of  the  tribe  was  a 
military  leader ;  but  he  also  performed  the  common  religious 
rites,  and  settled  disputes,  if  necessary ;  in  other  words,  he 
was  a  commander  in  chief,  a  priest,  and  a  judge.  We  can 
readily  see  that  in  times  of  war  the  power  of  the  tribal  chief 
would  be  well-nigh  absolute.  But  he  was  accustomed  to  call 
together  the  lesser  chiefs,  or  leading  men  of  the  different 
phratries,  who  formed  a  council ;  and  these  leading  men  would 
come  to  be  regarded  as  a  privileged  class.  On  important  occa- 
sions the  whole  body  of  people  capable  of  bearing  arms  might 
be  called  together  to  approve  the  will  of  the  chief  and  council. 

In  this  way  was  gradually  formed  the  tribal  state  of  Homeric 
times,  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  city  state  of  the  historical 
period.  We  may  say  in  brief  that  a  number  of  families  com- 
posed a  clan ;  a  number  of  clans,  a  phratry ;  a  number  of 
phratries,  a  tribe ;   and  a  number  of  tribes,  the  state. 


108  BEGINNINGS  OF   GREECE 


II.     The  Organization  of  the  City  State 

The  Citadel  as  a  Center  of  Defense.  —  The  city  state  was 
generally  made  up  of  a  union  of  tribes ;  this  was  the  most  com- 
plete political  organization  developed  by  the  ancient  Greeks. 
Like  the  tribe,  the  city  also  was  formed  for  the  common  pro- 
tection of  its  people.  Hence  we  find  the  cities  of  Greece  usu- 
ally built  about  high  places  selected  as  suitable  centers  of 
defense.  These  hills  were  fortified  and  formed  citadels,  like 
the  Acropolis  of  Athens.  The  citadel  was  thus  the  nucleus 
of  the  city,  and  about  it  the  people  dwelt  in  their  humble 
homes. 

Religion  as  a  Bond  of  Union.  —  The  people  of  the  city  were 
not  only  united  about  a  common  citadel ;  they  were  also  bound 
together  by  a  common  religion.  Each  smaller  group  —  like 
the  family,  the  gens,  etc  — retained  its  own  particular  wor- 
ship ;  but  to  be  a  part  of  the  city  it  must  also  recognize  the 
common  deity  under  whose  protection  the  city  was  founded, 
and  by  whose  coutinual  worship  the  city  life  was  maintained. 
Religion  was  thus  the  sacred  bond  of  union  which  held  to- 
gether the  various  parts  of  the  community. 

The  City  King,  or  Basileus. — The  city  also  possessed  a 
political  organization,  which  was  developed  from  that  of  the 
tribe.  The  highest  officer  of  the  city  was  the  king  (basileus). 
He  was,  like  the  tribal  chief,  the  leader  of  the  people  in  time 
of  war ;  he  was  the  priest  of  the  common  city  religion ;  and  he 
was  the  chief  judge  who  settled  the  quarrels  arising  between 
different  citizens.  The  king  did  not  govern  by  any  written 
laws ;  he  settled  all  questions  according  to  existing  customs, 
or  what  he  supposed  to  be  the  will  of  the  gods. 

The  City  Council,  or  Boule.  —  Another  political  feature  of 
the  city  government  was  the  council  of  chiefs  {houle).  Like 
the  council  of  the  tribe,  it  was  composed  of  the  most  influential 
men  in  the  community.  They  were  called  together  whenever 
the  king  desired.  Their  opinions  were  consulted  and  their 
assent   was  obtained  for  the  purpose  of  upholding  the   royal 


CHARACTER   OF   THE   GREEK   CITY   STATE  109 

authority.  The  chiefs,  on  account  of  their  superior  birth  and 
influence,  formed  a  sort  of  aristocratic  class,  or  body  of  nobles. 

The  City  Assembly,  or  Agora.  —  It  was  only  in  times  of  great 
emergency  that  the  king  would  feel  obliged  to  call  upon  the 
people  for  the  expression  of  their  opinion.  If  a  war  was  to  be 
declared,  or  an  expedition  to  be  undertaken,  it  was  necessary 
to  feel  the  temper  of  the  people,  who  were  to  fight  the  battles. 
But  the  people  were  called  together  quite  as  much  to  influence 
them  as  to  ascertain  their  will.  It  was  only  when  the  city 
state  acquired  less  of  a  military  and  more  of  a  civil  character 
that  the  assembly  of  the  people  {agora)  became  a  real  demo- 
cratic element  in  the  state. 

Independence  of  the  City  States.  —  The  broken  nature  of  the 
Greek  territory  kept  the  various  communities  separate  and  in- 
dependent of  each  other.  The  national  life  of  Greece  thus 
became  centered  in  the  cities.  The  spirit  of  patriotism  con- 
sisted in  love  for  one's  own  city.  The  great  achievements  of 
the  Greeks  were  made  to  glorify  the  city.  But  in  these  sepa- 
rate and  independent  city  states  was  born  the  spirit  of  modern 
liberty. 

III.     Political  Developmext  ix  Greece 

Tendency  to  Revolution.  —  We  must  not  suppose  that  the 
Greek  city  states  always  remained  in  the  simple  and  primitive 
condition  which  we  have  just  described.  Their  ^Dolitical  life, 
on  the  contrary,  was  one  of  continual  activity  and  change. 
One  form  of  government  succeeded  another  as  the  king,  or  the 
nobles,  or  the  people  gained  the  upper  hand.  Although  the 
different  cities  presented  a  great  diversity  in  their  political 
life,  we  can  trace  a  general  tendency  in  the  direction  of  more 
democratic  ideas  and  freer  institutions. 

From  Monarchy  to  Aristocracy.  —  In  the  earliest  times,  the 
king  was  the  most  prominent  figure  in  the  government.  This 
supremacy  of  the  king  and  the  royal  family  is  what  constitutes 
a  monarchy.  But  this  monarchical  form  of  government  did 
not  always  last.     When  the  rule  of  the  king  became  oppressive, 


110  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

the  political  power  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  nobles.  The 
supremacy  of  such  a  class  of  influential  men  in  the  state  is 
what  constitutes  an  aristocracy.  If  the  power  is  restricted 
to  a  very  few  persons,  the  government  is  called  an  oligarchy. 
At  an  early  period  the  political  authority  in  the  cities  was 
transferred  from  the  hands  of  the  king  to  the  hands  of  the 
nobles;  and  this  change  is  what  we  mean  by  the  transition 
from  monarchy  to  aristocracy,  or  oligarchy. 

From  Aristocracy  to  Tyranny.  —  When  the  nobles  obtained 
the  supreme  power  in  the  city,  they  were  tempted  to  use  it  for 
their  own  interests.  This  was  often  done  at  the  expense  of 
the  people.  The  city  population  thus  came  to  be  divided 
into  two  parties,  the  aristocratic  and  democratic  parties  —  the 
former  striving  to  maintain  their  own  power  and  privileges,  and 
the  latter  struggling  to  obtain  an  equality  of  rights.  In  the 
midst  of  these  popular  discontents  appeared  nearly  everywhere 
the  men  whom  the  Greeks  called  "tyrants."  The  so-called 
tyrant  was  not  necessarily  a  despotic  ruler,  but  a  man  who  had 
seized  the  power  of  the  state  in  an  irregular  way.  He  might 
be  a  patriot,  working  for  the  interests  of  the  people,  or  he 
might  be  a  demagogue,  working  for  his  own  interests.  In 
either  case,  he  was  an  enemy  to  the  oligarchy ;  and  his  tri- 
umph meant  the  overthrow  of  the  aristocratic  power.  The 
tyrants  were  in  fact  "the  means  of  breaking  down  the  oli- 
garchies in  the  interests  of   the  people"  (Abbott). 

From  Tyranny  to  Democracy.  —  The  one-man  power  was  es- 
tablished in  many  of  the  cities  of  Greece.  As  long  as  the 
tyrants  looked  after  the  interests  of  the  people,  their  rule  was 
tolerated.  But  whenever  and  wherever  they  became  selfish, 
ambitious,  and  oppressive,  they  were  detested.  The  so-called 
"  age  of  tyrants  "  formed,  generally  speaking,  a  period  of  tran- 
sition to  the  democratic  form  of  government ;  and  democracy 
came  to  be  the  prevailing  form  of  government  in  a  great  part 
of  Hellas.  The  different  states,  however,  were  not  equally  suc- 
cessful in  obtaining  a  democratic  government.  The  least  suc- 
cessful were  the  Dorian  cities,  especially   Sparta;  the  most 


CHARACTER   OF   THE   GREEK   CITY  STATE  111 

successful  were  the  Ionian  cities,  especially  Athens.  Sparta 
and  Athens,  indeed,  represent  the  two  extreme  tendencies  in 
the  political  development  of  Greece ;  and  hence  the}^  may  be 
taken  to  illustrate  the  two  types  of  the  Greek  city  state.  In 
Sparta  we  shall  see  the  forms  of  a  monarchical  government 
still  preserved,  but  the  real  power  passing  into  the  hands  of  a 
small  part  of  the  people,  which  resulted  in  the  growth  of  an 
aristocracy,  or  oligarchy.  In  Athens,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
shall  see  the  forms  of  monarchy  entirely  abolished  and  the 
political  power  transferred  to  the  great  body  of  citizens, 
resulting  in  the  growth  of  a  well-organized  democratic  state. 

SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Bury,  Ch.  1,  §  1,  "Political  and  Social  Organization  of  the  Early  Greek 
States";  §  9,  "Fall  of  Greek  Monarchies  and  Rise  of  Republics" 
(lO).i 

Abbott,  Vol.  II.,  Introduction,  "  Sketch  of  Constitutional  History"  (11). 

Allcroft,  Vol.  L,  Ch.  9,  "Evolution  of  Governments"  (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  20,  "  Political  Development  of  the  Greek  States  "  (11). 

Whibley,  Greek  Oligarchies,  Ch.  3,  "  Historical  Development  of  Consti- 
tutions" (20). 

Greenidge,  Ch.  2,  "  Early  Development  of  the  Greek  Constitution  through 
Monarchy,  Aristocracy, Tyranny, to  Constitutional  Government"  (20). 

Fowler,  Ch.  2,  "  Genesis  of  the  City  State  "  ;  Ch.  3,  "  Its  First  Form  of 
Government";  Ch.  4,  "Rise  of  Aristocratic  Government";  Ch.  5, 
"Transition  from  Aristocracy  to  Democracy"  (20). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  Greek  "  Tyrannies." —  Smith,  Ch.  9  (10)  ;  Oman,  Ch.  10  (10)  ; 
Cox,  Bk.  I.,  Ch.  6  (10)  ;  Allcroft,  Vol.  L,  Ch.  10  (10) ;  Bury,  pp.  144- 
157  (10)  ;  Greenidge,  pp.  25-35  (20)  ;  Fowler,  pp.  140-149  (20)  ;  Holm, 
Vol.  I.,  Ch.  22  (11)  ;  Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  12  (11)  ;  Mahaffy,  Problems, 
Ch.  4  (12). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appendix, 
where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE   DORIAN  CITY  STATE  — SPARTA 
I.     Political  Growth  of  Sparta 

Character  of  the  Dorian  Race.  —  The  first  people  of  historic 
Greece  to  attain  political  distinction  were  the  Dorians.  Since 
leaving  their  early  home  in  Thessaly  (see  page  81),  this  people 
had  preserved  the  simple  character  and  rugged  habits  of  their 
ancestors.  They  were  by  nature  fitted  for  a  kind  of  culture 
different  from  that  which  prevailed  among  the  people  whom 
they  drove  from  the  Peloponnesus.  They  had  no  love  for  the 
massive  walls,  the  gorgeous  palaces,  and  golden  ornaments  of 
Tiryns  and  Mycenae;  and,  unlike  the  Achseans,  they  did  not 
fall  under  the  spell  of  Orientalism.  They  came  into  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus as  conquerors ;  and  they  seemed  to  know  that  to 
maintain  their  supremacy  over  others,  they  must  learn  to  govern 
themselves.  The  Dorians  were  thus  the  leaders  in  the  devel- 
opment of  a  distinct  Hellenic  culture  —  a  culture  based  not 
upon  extravagance  and  excess,  like  that  of  the  East,  but  upon 
restraint  and  self-control.  The  phase  of  Greek  culture  which 
they  established  was  not,  however,  intellectual  and  artistic, 
but  physical  and  military.  This  physical  training,  crude  as  it 
may  have  been  in  its  methods,  made  sturdy  men  and  hardy 
warriors.  It  made  the  Dorians  supreme  in  the  Peloponnesus 
and  for  a  time  in  Hellas. 

The  Rise  of  Sparta.  —  In  their  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus 
the  Dorians  took  possession  of  three  important  countries^ — 
Argolis,  Laconia,  and  Messenia.,  Their  first  important  cities 
arose  in  Argolis;  chief  of  them  was  Argos.  One  of  the 
rulers  of  Argos,  Phi 'don  by  name,  was  especially  noted  as  the 
man  who  introduced  a  system  of  weights  and  measures,  and 
who  established  a  mint  for  the  coinage  of  money.  From 
Argos  as  a  center,  the  Dorians  subdued  the  towns  of  Corinth, 

112 


THE   DORIAN   CITY   STATE  — SPARTA 


113 


Coin  of  Phidon 


Meg'ara,  and  Sicyon  (sish'i-on  ;  map,  p.  119).  But  all  the  Dorian 
cities  were  at  last  overshadowed  by  Sparta,  a  town  of  Laconia, 
which  we  may  regard  as 
the  typical  city  state  of  the 
Dorian  race.  Situated  on 
the  Euro'tas  River,  it  was 
at  first  a  mere  military  gar- 
rison, struggling  to  main- 
tain itself  against  a  hostile 
people.  By  degrees  it 
gained  in  strength  until  it  became  the  center  of  the  Dorian 
civilization.  This  remarkable  city  owed  its  success  to  its 
peculiar  organization  and  discipline,  said  to  have  been  estab- 
lished by  Lycur'gus. 

The  Legislation  of  Lycurgus.  —  The  Spartans  always  looked 
upon  Lycurgus  as  the  founder  of  their  institutions.      But  all 

we  know  of  this  famous  law- 
giver is  gathered  from  tradi- 
tions which  are  not  very 
trustworthy.  He  is  said  to 
have  ordered  the  people  to  rec- 
ognize the  gods,  and  to  build 
temples  to  Zeus  and  Athena ; 
to  have  divided  the  popula- 
tion into  tribes  and  clans 
(obes)  ;  and  to  have  instituted 
a  council  of  chiefs  and  an 
assembly.  It  is  quite  evident 
that  these  institutions  could 
not  have  been  established  by 
Lycurgus,  for  they  were  com- 
mon to  all  the  Greek  states, 
and  were  similar  to  those  of 
the  Homeric  age.  But  with- 
out attempting  to  say  exactly  what  was  and  what  was  not 
established  by  Lycurgus,  or  to  settle  the  question  whether  or 


Lycurgus  (So-called) 


114  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

not  there  was  such  a  man,  we  may  review  the  Spartan  institu- 
tions as  they  existed  in  historical  times. 

Divisions  of  the  People.  —  The  first  thing  we  notice  in  Sparta 
is  the  division  of  the  whole  population  into  three  classes  — 
which  had  evidently  grown  up  as  the  result  of  the  Dorian 
conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus. 

1.  The  upper  class  consisted  of  the  Spartans  themselves, 
the  descendants  of  the  Dorian  conquerors.  They  were  the  free 
inhabitants  of  the  Spartan  city,  and  were  the  sole  possessors  of 
political  rights  and  privileges.  They  formed  a  comparatively 
small  part  of  the  entire,  population  —  not  more  than  ten  thou- 
sand men  capable  of  bearing  arms.  They  received  the  best 
portions  of  the  land ;  but  they  were  forbidden  themselves  to 
till  the  soil,  or  to  do  the  work  of  artisans  or  traders.  Their 
sole  occupation  was  war  and  service  to  the  state. 

2.  The  next  class  comprised  the  Perioe'ci  (dwellers  around), 
who  formed  a  large  part  of  the  conquered  people.  They  lived 
in  the  neighboring  towns,  farmed  the  lands  of  the  state,  and 
engaged  in  manufactures  and  commerce.  They  were  personally 
free,  but  forced  to  pay  tribute  to  Sparta.  They  were,  moreover, 
called  upon  to  serve  in  the  Spartan  army  in  time  of  war,  and 
were  even  assigned  to  posts  of  command. 

3.  The  lowest  class  were  the  Helots,  or  serfs,  who  tilled 
the  soil  allotted  to  the  citizens.  They  belonged  to  the  state, 
and  could  not  be  sold  by  their  Spartan  masters.  They  formed 
the  largest  part  of  the  population.  They  had  no  rights,  and 
their  condition  was  wretched. 

The  Spartan  Government.  —  The  form  of  the  government  of 
Sparta  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  system  which  prevailed  in  the 
tribal  state  of  Homeric  times.  This  we  see  in  the  three 
branches  of  the  early  government,  the  kingship,  the  senate, 
and  the  assembly. 

1.  At  the  head  of  the  state  were  two  kings,  members  of  dis- 
tinct royal  families.  The  origin  of  this  double  kingship  it  is 
difficult  to  determine.  The  kings  acted  as  a  restraint  upon 
each  other,  and  this  tended  to  weaken  the  royal  power. 


THE    DORIAN   CITY   STATE  — SPARTA  115 

2.  A  more  important  element  of  the  state  was  the  senate 
(gerou'sia).  This  was  a  body  composed  of  thirty  of  the  lead- 
ing citizens,  including  the  two  kings.  In  early  times  the 
members  of  the  senate  no  doubt  represented  the  clans  which 
united  to  form  the  state.  But  in  historical  times  they  were 
elected  by  the  citizens.  They  must  be  sixty  years  of  age,  and 
they  held  their  position  for  life.  Originally  the  senators  were 
simply  the  advisors  of  the  kings  ;  but  they  came  to  be  the 
sharers  of  their  power.  They  not  only  determined  largely  the 
policy  of  the  kings,  but  were  judges  in  criminal  cases,  and 
prepared  the  matters  which  came  before  the  assembly. 

3.  The  third  branch  of  Spartan  government  was  the  as- 
sembly (apel'la),  which  consisted  of  all  Spartan  citizens 
above  thirty  years  of  age.  The  assembly  not  only  elected  the 
senators,  but  decided  upon  the  most  important  matters  of 
state.  It  ratified  the  laws,  determined  questions  of  war 
and  peace,  and  settled  disputes  regarding  the  royal  succession. 
The  highest  power  thus  rested  in  the  body  of  Spartan  citizens ; 
and  in  this  respect  the  state  might  be  called  a  democracy.  But 
when  we  consider  the  fact  that  the  body  of  citizens  formed  but 
a  small  part  of  the  whole  population,  the  government  can  more 
properly  be  regarded  as  an  aristocracy. 

The  Ephors  and  their  Power.  —  We  should  not  have  a  com- 
plete view  of  the  Spartan  constitution  if  we  failed  to  notice 
the  ephors  (watchers),  who  were  officers  peculiar  to  Sparta. 
They  were  five  in  number,  and  formed  a  kind  of  supervisory 
board.  They  were  elected  by  the  assembly  each  year  to  pro- 
tect the  interests  of  the  people  against  the  encroachments  of 
the  kings  and  the  senate.  They  came  in  time  to  be  the  guard- 
ians of  the  constitution  and  the  real  rulers  of  the  state.  They 
exercised  executive  and  judicial  powers,  punished  those  who 
opposed  their  will,  and  called  to  account  the  officials,  even 
the  kings ;  and  from  their  sentence  there  was  no  appeal.  But 
more  than  all,  they  supervised  the  Spartan  discipline  and 
training,  which,  above  everything  else,  determined  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Spartan  state. 


116  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 


II.     The  Spartan  Discipline  and  Education 

Character  of  the  Spartan  Discipline.  — The  strength  of  Sparta 
was  due  not  so  much  to  the  form  of  her  government  as  to  the 
character  of  her  citizens.  If  there  is  anything  that  Sparta 
owed  to  some  lawgiver  like  Lycurgus,  it  was,  no  doubt,  that 
peculiar  form  of  discipline  by  which  her  citizens  were  trained 
to  be  soldiers,  and  her  soldiers  to  be  lovers  of  their  country. 
The  great  end  of  this  training  was  to  fit  the  citizen  for  the 
service  of  the  state.  This  end  was  attained  by  a  system  of 
public  education  and  supervision  which  began  with  childhood 
and  ended  only  with  old  age. 

Education  of  the  Young.  —  The  Spartans  evidently  believed 
that  the  character  of  a  nation  depends  upon  the  training  of  its 
children.  If  the  state  is  to  be  prepared  for  war,  the  children 
must  be  physically  strong  and  inured  to  hardships  akin  to 
those  of  war.  The  Spartan  elders  decided  whether  each  child, 
at  birth,  was  sufficiently  strong  to  be  reared,  or  whether  he 
should  be  exposed  to  the  wild  beasts.  At  the  age  of  seven 
the  boy  was  taken  from  his  mother's  care  and  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  public  trainers.  From  this  time  he  was  subject 
to  a  training  which  was  severe,  and  which  to  us  seems  brutal ; 
but  to  the  Spartans  it  seemed  the  necessary  preparation  for  a 
soldier's  life.  The  boy  was  obliged  to  prepare  his  own  meals; 
to  wear  the  same  clothing  summer  and  winter ;  to  sleep  on  a 
bed  of  rushes ;  to  forage  at  home  as  he  would  be  obliged  to 
forage  in  the  field ;  to  deceive  his  friend  as  he  would  deceive 
his  foe ;  to  be  hardened  by  the  lash  that  he  might  better  en- 
dure the  hardships  of  the  camp.  To  develop  his  physical 
strength  and  agility,  he  was  trained  in  gymnastic  exercises,  in 
running,  wrestling,  and  throwing  the  javelin. 

If  tlie  boys  were  trained  to  become  men  in  the  Spartan 
sense,  the  girls  were  trained  to  become  the  mothers  of  such 
men,  to  be  healthy  and  strong ;  so  that  it  was  said  that  the 
Spartan  women  were  the  most  vigorous  and  beautiful  of  all 
the  women  of  Greece.     The  Spartans  had  little  sympathy  with 


THE   DORIAN   CITY   STATE  — SPARTA  117 

higher  intellectual  culture,  with  art  and  science.  Music  and 
poetry,  however,  were  appreciated  if  they  were  inspired  wdth 
a  martial  spirit.  But  oratory  had  for  them  no  attraction ;  and 
they  insisted  upon  brevity  of  speech. 

Restraints  upon  Luxury.  —  The  supervision  of  the  state  was 
exercised  not  only  over  the  training  of  the  young,  but  over 
the  lives  of  all  citizens.  Every  form  of  luxury  was  dis- 
couraged. The  dress  was  simple.  The  houses  were  humble 
and  unadorned.  Money  was  not  lavished  upon  public  build- 
ings and  works  of  art.  The  temptations  to  a  life  of  luxury 
were  withstood,  especially  by  the  institution  of  public  meals 
(syssitia).  The  men  were  organized  in  companies,  and  each 
one  contributed  to  the  common  meal.  The  fare  was  of  the 
simplest  sort,  the  chief  dish  being  the  famous  "  black  broth."  ^ 
The  men  were  withdrawn  from  their  families  and  lived  in  pub- 
lic barracks.  Home  life  was  thus  destroyed  in  the  interests  of 
the  state.  In  these  ways  the  simple  and  severe  discipline  of 
the  camp  was  maintained  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war. 

Military  Organization.  —  The  Spartans  evidently  knew  that 
battles  are  not  to  be  won  by  mere  physical  courage  and  endur- 
ance. They  knew  that  to  make  an  effective  army,  men  must 
be  properly  organized  and  officered.  Hitherto  men  had  fought 
in  large  masses,  arranged  by  tribes  and  clans,  and  directed  by 
the  herald  of  the  king.  The  Spartans  introduced  a  new  ar- 
rangement, something  like  our  modern  companies,  regiments, 
and  brigades.  The  smallest  division  was  a  company  of  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  men  under  a  captain.  Each  division,  from  the 
largest  to  the  smallest,  was  under  its  own  officers;  and  the  orders 
from  the  commander  in  chief  were  transmitted  through  these 
different  grades  of  officers.  The  men  marched  to  the  music  of 
the  fife,  and  were  trained  in  various  tactical  evolutions.  The 
Spartans  came  to  have  the  most  efficient  army  of  Greece,  and, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  of  the  world  at  that  time. 

iThis  national  dish  of  the  Spartans  consisted  of  "pork  cooked  in  blood 
and  seasoned  with  salt  and  vinegar"  (Gilbert,  Constitutional  Antiquities, 
p.  (59). 


118  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 


III.    Supremacy  of  Sparta  in  the  Peloponnesus 

Conquest  of  Laconia  and  Messenia.  — With  such  a  political 
and  military  organization,  Sparta  was  able  not  only  to  main- 
tain her  own  position,  but  also  to  extend  her  authority  over  her 
neighbors.  But  this  was  accomplished  only  after  a  long  series 
of  struggles.  The  valley  of  the  Eurotas  was  first  subdued. 
The  Achaean  city  of  Amyclse  was  conquered,  and  also  Helos 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river.  The  possession  of  Cynu'ria,  the 
territory  bordering  upon  Argolis,  was  wrested  from  Argos; 
and  it  was  not  long  before  the  whole  of  Laconia  was  Spartan 
territory.  Sparta  was  then  brought  into  contact  with  Messenia, 
the  country  to  the  west  of  the  Tayg'etus  Mountains.  After 
two  severe  wars  —  each  covering  a  period  of  twenty  years  — 
the  Spartans  were  finally  victorious,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Messenia  either  fled  into  exile  or  were  reduced  to  the  condi- 
tion of  helots. 

Extension  of  the  Spartan  Power.  —  Sparta  now  turned  her  at- 
tention to  the  other  states  of  the  Peloponnesus.  After  a  stub- 
born resistance  —  especially  on  the  part  of  thecity  of  Te'gea — 
Arcadia  was  compelled  to  acknowledge  her  supremacy.  She  was 
then  called  upon  to  interfere  in  a  quarrel  going  on  in  Elis  in 
regard  to  the  control  of  the  Olympian  games ;  and  she  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  her  superior  influence  in  that  district. 
The  city  of  Argos  maintained  a  bitter  opposition  to  Sparta, 
and  was  able  to  preserve  its  independence;  but  a  large  part 
of  Argolis  was  brought  under  Spartan  control. 

The  Peloponnesian  League.  —  By  her  conquests  and  alliances 
Sparta  became  the  supreme  power  in  the  Peloponnesus.  With 
the  exception  of  Argos  and  the  district  of  Achaia,  all  the. 
states  of  the  peninsula  were  united  under  the  hegemony,  or 
leadership,  of  this  one  power.  The  inhabitants  of  these  states 
were  permitted  to  retain  their  local  independence ;  and  each 
state  possessed  an  equal  vote  in  a  council  which  was  sup- 
posed to  regulate  matters  of  common  interest.  As  a  result 
of   this   policy  there  arose  a  Peloponnesian  league,  but  not 


THE  DORIAN  CITY  STATE  — SPARTA  119 


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The  Peloponnesus 

a  Peloponnesian  state.     Sparta  was  still  a  city  state,  maintain- 
ing an  authority  over  other  city  states. 

Position  of  Sparta  in  Greece.  —  While  there  are  many  things 
that  we  might  criticise  in  the  narrow  government,  the  austere 
training,  and  the  domineering  policy  of  Sparta,  we  must  confess 
that  she  contributed  much  to  the  future  greatness  of  Greece. 
She  set  an  example  of  simplicity  in  life,  of  self-control,  of 
patriotic  devotion,  of  respect  for  existing  institutions.  She 
showed  the  importance  of  physical  education,  of  healthy, 
strong,  and  symmetrical  bodies ;  and  she  gave  Greece  an  ideal 
of  physical  manhood,  which  furnished  an  inspiration  to  Greek 
sculpture.  She  also  set  a  pattern  of  military  organization,  by 
which  in  the  subsequent  period  of  foreign  invasions  Greece 
morey's  greek  hist. — 8 


120  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

was  saved  from  destruction.  Although  Sparta  did  not  repre- 
sent the  highest  culture  of  Greece,  she  did  much  to  make  that 
highest  culture  possible. 

SELECTIONS    FOR    READING 

Cox,  Ch.  5,  "Constitution  and  Early  History  of  Sparta"  (10). i 

Smith,  Ch.  7,  "Early  History  of  the  Peloponnesus  "  (10). 

Bury,  Ch.  3,  "Growth  of  Sparta"  (10). 

Oman,  Ch.  7,  "The  Dorians  in  the  Peloponnesus"  (10). 

Allcroft,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  8,  "The  Spartan  State"   (10). 

Curtius,  Vol.  L,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  1,  "History  of  the  Peloponnesus"  (11). 

Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  15,  "  Sparta,  the  Constitution  of  Lycurgus"   (U). 

Greenidge,  Ch.  5,  "  Mixed  Constitutions"  (20). 

Gilbert,  pp.  81-91,  "  The  Lacedaemonian  League"  (20). 

Plutarch,  "Lycurgus"  (13). 

SPECIAL    STUDY 

The  Spartan  Discipline. —Oman,  pp.  68-70  (10)  ;  Smith,  pp.  66-69 
(10);  Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  211-217  (11);  Curtius,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  215-222 
(11)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  181-185  (11)  ;  Grote,  Part  n.,  Ch.  C  (11)  ; 
Blumner,  Ch.  3  (22). 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  IONIAN  CITY  STATE— ATHENS 

I.     The  Athenian  Monarchy  and  its  Decline 

Character  of  the  Ionian  Race. — As  the  Dorians  represented 
the  physical  and  military  side  of  Greek  culture,  so  the  lonians 
represented  its  political  and  intellectual  side.  The  lonians, 
therefore,  stand  for  what  we  generally  regard  as  the  highest 
and  most  essential  features  of  Greek  civilization  —  the  love  of 
freedom,  the  taste  for  intellectual  pursuits,  and  a  fine  sense  of 
beauty.     The  chief  seats  of  the  Ionian  race  were  Attica,  the 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appendix, 
where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  Will  be  found. 


THE   IONIAN   CITY   STATE  — ATHENS  121 

islands  of  Euboea  and  the  Cyclades,  and  the  central  coasts  of 
Asia  Minor  (see  map,  page  80).  Of  all  the  Ionian  city  states, 
Athens  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  typical.  The  history  of 
this  state  shows  a  continual  tendency  in  the  direction  of 
democratic  institutions.  As  we  study  it  we  shall  see  passing 
before  us  in  succession  the  various  phases  of  government  — 
monarchy,  aristocracy,  tyranny,  and  democracy. 

The  Ancient  Monarchy  of  Athens.  —  Our  knowledge  of  the 
early  history  of  Athens  is  based  almost  entirely  uj)on  traditions  ; 
but  we  are  able  to  see  that  its  most  ancient  government  was 
patterned  after  the  Homeric  type  —  with  a  king,  a  council,  and 
an  assembly.  We  can  also,  see  that  the  Athenian  state  was 
evidently  formed,  in  the  usual  way,  out  of  a  union  of  smaller 
groups  —  the  family,  the  gens,  the  phratry,  and  the  tribe  — 
each  of  which  was  bound  together  by  a  common  religion.  The 
district  of  Attica  was  covered  by  a  number  of  small  communi- 
ties, each  of  which  had  been  formed  by  such  a  union;  and 
these  communities  came  to  be  united  about  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens  —  the  common  citadel  of  Attica  —  where  they  joined  in 
the  common  worship  of  Athena. 

The  king  was  the  head  of  this  common  state;  and  he  was 
supposedto  have  founded  the  early  institutions  of  Athens  — 
which  in  fact  were  the  result  of  a  gradual  growth.  The  royal 
line  included  a  long  list  of  names  from  Cecrops,  the  mythical 
founder  of  Athens,  to  Codrus,  the  "  last  of  the  kings."  The 
most  celebrated  of  the  intervening  kings  were  Erech'theus, 
n  after  whom  one  of  the  noted  buildings  of  Athens  was  named 
I  ^^^Erechthe'iim),  and  Theseus,  who  was  said  to  have  brought  the 
T|^  various  towns  of  Attica  (twelve  in  number)  under  one  cen- 
J  tralized  monarchy.  While  we  know  very  little  of  these  tradi- 
tional kings,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  ancient  monarchy 
was  the  result  of  a  gathering  together  of  the  smaller  Ionian 
towns  of  Attica  about  a  common  center  at  Athens. 

Divisions  of  the  People  in  Attica.  —  In  each  of  the  Ionian 
towns  of  Attica  there  were  certain  divisions  of  the  people  which 
remained   after   the    towns   were   united   under  the   common 


122  BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 

monarchy.  In  the  first  place,  there  were  the  four  Ionian  tribes 
which  bore  distinct  names  (Geleon'tes,  Hople'tes,  ^gic'ores, 
and  Ar'gades)  and  which  were  each  made  up  of  phratries  and 
clans.  In  the  next  place,  there  were  three  class  divisions, 
upon  which  were  based  social  rank  and  political  privileges  : 
(1)  the  well-born,  or  nobles  (Eujmt'ndce),  (2)  the  farmers 
(Georn'ori),  and  (3)  the  artisans  {Demiur'gi).  Of  these  classes 
the  Eu'patrids  stood  nearest  to  the  king.  They  were  the  only 
persons  who  possessed  political  privileges ;  and  from  them  the 
king  chose  the  members  of  his  council.  If  the  rest  of  the 
freemen  were  ever  called  together  in  an  assembly,  it  was  only 
on  very  rare  occasions. 

Decline  of  the  Monarchy ;  the  Archonship.  —  The  decline  of 
the  kingly  power  at  Athens  was  woven  by  tradition  into  a  patri- 
otic story.  It  is  related  that  when  the  Dorians  were  once  invad- 
ing Attica,  an  oracle  declared  that  that  side  would  win  whose 
king  was  slain.  Codrus  was  then  the  king  of  Athens.  In 
order  to  save  his  country  Codrus  devoted  himself  to3^ath ;  he 
disguised  himself  as  a  peasant,  entered  the  ranks  of  the  enemy, 
and  was  killed ;  and  the  Athenians  declared  that  no  one  after 
Codrijs  was  worthy  to  bear  the  name  of  king.  This  was  the 
tradition.  The  fact  seems  to  be  that  the  power  of  the  king 
gradually  declined,  as  other  magistrates  were  appointed  to 
exercise  authority  alongside  of  him.  Relating  to  this  subject 
Ar'istotle,  who  wrote  a  book  on  the  Athenian  government,  says: 
"  The  first  magistrates,  both  in  date  and  importance,  were  the 
king,  the  polemarch  (or  commander  in  war),  and  the  archon. 
The  earliest  of  these  offices  was  that  of  the  king,  which  existed 
from  the  very  beginning.  To  this  was  added,  secondly,  the 
office  of  polemarch,  for  the  reason  that  some  of  the  kings  were 
feeble  in  war.  The  last  of  these  three  offices  was  that  of  the 
archon  "  (Athenian  Constitution,  Ch.  3).  .  Afterward,  there  were 
appointed  six  junior  magistrates  called,  by  way  of  distinction, 
thesmoth'etce,  or  guardians  of  the  law.  This  whole  body  of 
magistrates  came  to  be  called  the  "nine  archons."  They  were 
arranged  in  the  following  order:  first,  the  three  senior  archons, 


THE  IONIAN  CITY  STATE— ATHENS  123 

including  (1)  the  chief  archon,  after  whom  the  year  was  named, 
and  who  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  highest  civil  officer,  (2)  the 
polemarch,  who  commanded  the  army^  (3)  the  king  archon, 
Y^ho  presided  over  the  public  worship ;  and,  secondly,  the  six 
junior  archons,  or  thesmothetce,  who  were  equal  in  rank,  who 
fkept  the  public  records,  and  who  acted  as  judges  in  certain 
cases.  The  nine  archons  were  chosen  from  the  bod}^  of  Eupa- 
trids,  or  the  nobles,  and  served  for  a  year.  Those  who  had 
served  as  archons  became  members  of  the  council  —  which 
position  they  held  for  life.  As  this  council  was  accustomed  to 
sit  on  the  hill  of  Ares  (Mars),  it  was  called  thq  "  Council  of  the 
Areop'agus." 

The  Conspiracy  of  Cylon  (628  b.c). — Although  the  king- 
ship had  now  given  way  to  the  archonship,  still  the  govern- 
ment was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  noble  families ;  that  is, 
the  Eupatrids.  Their  rule  was  often  harsh,  and  the  people 
were  discontented.  We  now  see  the  first  attempt  to  establish 
a  'tyranny"  at  Athens.  The  story  goes  that  an  ambitious 
young  man  by  the  name  of  Cylon  — -  who  had  won  a  foot  race 
at  the  Olympian  games  and  had  married  the  daughter  of  the 
tyrant  of  Megara  —  hoped  that  his  popularity  would  enable 
him  to  acquire  the  same  power  in  Athens  that  his  father-in- 
law  exercised  in  Megara.  So,  with  the  aid  of  Megarian  troops, 
he  and  his  followers  seized  the  Acropolis.  But  the  people,  in- 
stead of  coming  to  his  support,  as  he  expected,  joined  the 
nobles  in  putting  down  the  conspiracy.  They  besieged  the 
Acropolis,  and  starved  the  conspirators  into  submission.  Cylon 
himself  escaped ;  but  his  followers,  when  they  saw  that  they 
must  surrender,  sought  refuge  near  the  shrine  of  Athena,  which 
stood  upon  the  summit  of  the  Acropolis.  To  seize  them  while 
under  the  protection  of  the  goddess  would  have  been  sacrilege. 
The  archon  Meg'acles,  therefore,  induced  them  to  leave  the 
shrine  by  promising  them  a  fair  trial.  But  to  guard  against 
any  possible  treachery,  they  attached  a  cord  to  the  statue  of 
the  goddess,  and,  holding  to  this  as  a  safeguard,  they  de- 
scended from  the  citadel.     When  they  reached  the  foot  of  the 


124  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

hill,  the  cord  broke,  and  by  command  of  the  archon  they  were 
nearly  all  massacred.  Thus  the  first  attempt  at  tyranny  proved 
a  failure.  On  account  of  the  treacherous  act  of  the  archon 
Megacles,  his  family  (called  the  Alcmaeon'idae)  was  "accursed." 
The  city  of  Megara,  also,  incurred  the  bitter  hatred  of  the 
Athenians  for  its  aid  in  this  conspiracy. 

The  Reforms  of  Draco  (621  b.c). — We  can  not  say  exactly 
what  effect  the  conspiracy  of  Cylon  had  upon  the  condition  of 
the  people.  It  may  be  that  they  were  emboldened  to  make 
new  demands  for  justice  and  equality.  It  may  be  that  their 
loyalty  during  this  disturbance  induced  the  nobles  to  grant 
them  some  rights.  However  this  may  be,  certain  changes  were 
made  which  were  intended  to  bring  about  a  more  peaceful  con- 
dition of  things.  These  changes  were  made  by  Draco,  one  of 
the  six  junior  archons. 

In  the  first  place,  if  we  are  to  believe  Aristotle,  there  were 

M^s^e  political  changes  made  by  Draco.     "  The  franchise  was 

fOf^^veii  to  all  who  could   furnish   themselves  with  a  military 

t\/t^*^  enuipment.     There  was  also  to  be  a  new  council,  consisting  of 

j^our  hundred  and  one  members,  elected  by  lot  from  among 

V^^^    those  who  possessed  the  franchise.     Both  for  this  council  and 

KjQ  1      lok  the  other  magistracies,  the  lot  was  cast  among  those  who 

\  \  £,tf^^re  over  thirty  years  of  age ;  and  no  one  might  hold  office 

jfi%.      twice  until  every  one  else  had  had  his  turn"  (Athenian  Con- 

^istitution,  Ch.  4).^     By  giving  the  franchise  to  those  who  could 

)r  furnish  themselves  with  a  military  equipment,  Draco  made 

wealth,  as  well  as  birth,  the  basis  of  political  rights. 

Another  change  attributed  to  Draco  was  the  reduction  of 
the  laws  to  a  written  form.  Hitherto  the  law  had  been  sim- 
ply a  body  of  customs  which  the  nobles  could  interpret  about 
as  they  pleased.  When  now  these  customs  were  written  down, 
their  severity  became  apparent ;   so  that  it  was  said  that  the 

1  The  attempt  of  certain  recent  critics  (like  Nissen,  Niese,  and  Peter  Meyer 
in  his  "Aristotle's  Politics  and  the  Athenian  Constitution")  to  throw  dis- 
credit upon  the  above  statements  can  not  be  regarded  as  successful,  and  seems 
to  have  been  fully  met  by  Gustav  Gilbert.  (Cf.  "  Constitutional  Antiquities 
of  Sparta  and  Athens,"  Eng.  ed.,  1895,  pp.  xxxiii-xxxix ;  also  p.  119,  note.) 


THE   IONIAN   CITY   STATE  — ATHENS 


125 


laws  of  Draco  were  "  written  not  in  ink  but  in  blood."  And 
there  was  some  ground  for  this  opinion ;  for  a  petty  theft  could 
be  punished  by  death,  and  an  insolvent  debtor  could  be  sold 
into  slavery.  But  this  severity  was  probably  due  not  to  Draco, 
but  to  the  old  customs  themselves,  which  he  simply  put  into  a 
written  form. 


II.     Solon  axd  the  Athenian  Aristocracy 

Solon  as  a  Reformer.  —  Thus  far  we  have  seen  the  decline 
of  the  old  Athenian  monarchy*  and  the  growth  of  an  aristo- 
cratic form  of  government  — 
a  government  which  rested  not 
only  upon  the  high-born  Eu- 
patrids,  but  upon  the  wealthy 
men  who  could  furnish  the 
equipment  of  a  heavy-armed 
soldier.  This  aristocratic  gov- 
ernment was  reorganized  by 
Solon.     It  was  placed  by  him 


upon 


a  broader  basis,  which 


Solon  (So-called) 


prepared  the  way  for  the  future 

democracy.      The    Athenians 

looked    upon    Solon   as   their 

greatest    lawgiver.      He    was 

fitted  by  nature  to  be  a  social 

and    political    reformer.      He 

was  a   man   of   thought,  and 

was  counted  among  the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece.     Like  a 

genuine  Greek,  he  believed  in  moderation  in  all  things.     He 

was,  withal,  a  philanthropist  and  patriot,  and  placed  all  his 

ability  at  the  service  of  his  country. 

Need  of  Social  Reform.  —  The  legislation  and  reforms  of 
Draco  did  not  relieve  to  any  extent  the  condition  of  the  com- 
mon people.  The  government  was  still  in  the  hands  of  those 
who  were  privileged  by  birth  or  the  possession  of  wealth.    But 


126 


BEGINNINGS   OF  GREECE 


more  than  this,  the  poorer  classes  were  held  in  a  state  of 
practical  bondage  to  the  rich.  Aristotle  has  given  us  a  vivid 
account  of  the  condition  of  the  people  at  this  time.  "The 
whole  country,"  he  says,  "  was  in  the  hands  of  a  few  persons ; 
and  if  the  poor  tenants  failed  to  pay  their  rent,  they  were  liable 
to  be  reduced  to  slavery,  and  their  children  with  them.  Their 
persons  were  mortgaged  to  their  creditors,  a  custom  which  pre- 
vailed until  the  time  of  Solon,  who  was  the  first  to  appear  as 
the  leader  of  the  people.  But  the  hardest  and  bitterest  part 
of  the  condition  of  the  masses  was  the  fact  that  they  had  no 
share  in  the  offices  existing  under  the  constitution.  At  the 
same  time  they  were  discontented  with  every  other  feature  of 
their  lot ;  for,  to  speak  generally,  they  had  no  part  nor  share 
in  anything."      (Athenian  Constitution,  Ch.  2.) 

Rem^al  of  Economic  Burdens. —  Solon  was  .elected  to  the 

OttAnship  (594  b.c),  with  full  authority  to  remedy  the  evils 

Yf\9^'ot  the  state.      His  first  measure  was  to  emancipate  the  debtor 

j^jjJ^  slaves.      The  persons   who  had  been   sold  into   slavery  were 

^^'^J^^Fl^i^-^  freed.  Those  who  had  fled 

<l-t//^^^^\  /<^^^^^^         ^^^^  exile  to  escape  the 

A  ''***^*^  mW  J/^^^\      ^<\     f^%  \\      cruelty  of  their  masters 

ay^   llvW^T^o'  1     P  Ik^^ffw'    m     ^^'ere    called    back.     The 

k'*^       % /^>l/^»?^/     1^  \i^^rW^    'W     •'^^^^  ^f  *^^e   poor  which 

#^->  iL^'^^yj^^*'*4i(^^      ^^      ini    "^Scr       ^^^  been  mortgaged  were 

I/^    p^t^^0S^  ^Ht^tt^ss^^        relieved  from  their   bur- 

Att  V^^^^^  dens.     All  debts  secured 

\  ^{QM^  /vinHENiAN  Coin  of  Solon's  Time  ,, 

f/K        .  M^  upon  the  persons  or  prop- 

.  '^•^ty  of  debtors  were  canceled ;  ^  and  all  loans  made  upon  the 

\Ar       security  of  the  person  were  henceforth  prohibited.     This  social 

reform  was  called  "  the  removal  of  burdens." 

Extension  of  Political  Rights.  —  The  reforms  of  Solon  affected 

not  only  the  social  condition  of  the  people,  but  their  political 

rights  as  well.      He  knew  that  the  people  could   not  protect 

1  Aristotle  says  that  Solon  "canceled  all  debts  public  and  private"  ;  but 
he  probably  had  in  mind  the  kind  of  debts  which  caused  the  wretched  condi- 
tion of  the  people  which  Solon  intended  to  relieve. 


THE   IONIAN  CITY  STATE  — ATHENS  127 

themselves  unless  they  received  a  larger  share  in  the  govern- 
ment. He  did  not,  however,  break  down  all  class  distinctions 
and  make  a  pure  democracy ;  but  he  did  give  to  all  the  free 
inhabitants  of  Attica  certain  political  privileges  according  to 
the  amount  of  their  wealth.  The  people  had  already  been 
divided  for  the  purposes  of  taxation  into  four  "  census  classes  '' 
as  follows :  — 

1.  Those  who  received  from  their  land  an  income  of  five 
hundred  measures  of  barley  or  wine,  and  were  called  "Five 
Hundred  Measure  Men  "  (Pentaco'sio-medim'ni). 

2.  Those  who  received  three  hundred  measures,  and  could 
furnish  a  horse  for  the  army,  and  hence  were  called  "  Knights  " 
{Hip'peis). 

3.  Those  who  received  two  hundred  measures,  and  were 
supposed  to  be  able  to  own  a  yoke  of  oxen,  and  were  called 
"  Yokemen  "  {Zeug'itce). 

4.  All  others,  whether  they  owned  landed  property  or  not, 
called  "Laborers"  (The'tes). 

Upon  these  census  classes  Solon  based  the  distribution  of 
political  rights ;  that  is,  the  right  to  hold  office  and  the  right 
to  vote.  The  archons  could  be  elected  only  from  the  first 
class.  The  inferior  officers  could  be  elected  from  the  first, 
second,  or  third  class,  but  not  from  the  fourth  class.  The 
members  of  all  four  classes,  however,  could  vote  in  the  assem- 
bly. Still  further  to  protect  the  lower  classes  from  injustice, 
he  established  a  system  of  jury  courts  (helice'a)  in  which  all 
citizens,  including  the  Thetes,  could  sit  as  jurors  (dicas'tce). 

The  New  Council  of  Four  Hundred.  —  Solon  retained  the  old 
Council  of  the  Areopagus,  which  continued,  as  Aristotle  says, 
to  be  the  "  guardian  of  the  constitution,"  since  it  watched  over 
the  conduct  of  the  magistrates  and  the  welfare  of  the  citizens, 
and  punished  the  greater  crimes  against  the  state.  But  the 
Council  of  Four  Hundred  and  One,  established  by  Draco,  was 
abolished ;  and  a  new  Council  of  Four  Hundred  was  created  — 
one  hundred  members  being  chosen  by  lot  from  each  of  the 
four  Ionian  tribes.     This  council  prepared  the  laws  to  be  sub- 


128  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

mitted  to  the  people  in  the  assembly.  In  this,  as  in  the  other 
features  of  the  new  constitution,  we  can  see  that  the  purpose  of 
Solon  was  not  to  destroy  the  aristocratic  element  in  the  state, 
but  to  give  a  greater  importance  to  the  democratic  element. 

Solon  and  the  Athenian  Discipline.  —  Like  the  Spartans,  Solon 
believed  that  the  character  of  the  state  depended  upon  some 
form  of  discipline.  But,  unlike  the  Spartans,  he  believed  that 
the  sources  of  public  virtue  were  in  the  home.  He  held  the 
father  responsible  for  training  the  son  in  habits  of  industry. 
He  believed  that  education  —  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral 
—  was  a  means  of  preserving  the  state.  "  In  the  shady  wres- 
tling-grounds, which  spread  themselves  out  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  city,  the  young  Athenians  were  to  unfold  the  vigor  of 
their  bodies  and  minds,  and  grow  to  be  a  part  of  the  state, 
which  demanded  men  not  drilled  in  the  Spartan  fashion,  but 
fully  and  freely  developed  "  (Curtius).  Solon  believed  it  to  be 
the  duty  of  every  citizen  to  have  an  interest  in  public  affairs ; 
and  he  disfranchised  the  man  who  refused  to  take  part  in 
political  life.  He  also  believed  that  individual  liberty  should 
be  restrained  in  the  interests  of  public  morality ;  and  he  pun- 
ished those  who  led  infamous  lives,  or  attempted  to  corrupt 
others.  The  Athenians  were  thus  trained  by  a  discipline,  no 
less  than  the  Spartans.  But  it  was  a  discipline  more  rational, 
and  based  upon  broader  ideas  of  human  nature ;  and  it  finally 
led  to  a  higher  form  of  culture. 

The  Last  Years  of  Solon.  —  The  reforms  of  Solon  were  guided 
by  wisdom  and  moderation.  They  were  therefore  criticised 
by  the  extremists  of  all  parties.  That  they  might  be  fairly 
tested,  Solon  is  said  to  have  bound  the  Athenians  by  an  oath 
to  observe  them  for  ten  years ;  and  then  he  departed  from  the 
city.  He  traveled  in  Egypt,  in  Cyprus,  and  is  said  to  have 
visited  Croesus,  the  king  of  Lydia.  In  response  to  a  question 
of  the  king,  as  to  who  was  the  happiest  of  men,  Solon,  knoW' 
ing  the  fickleness  of  fortune,  is  said  to  have  replied  that  "  no 
one  can  be  counted  truly  happy  until  he  is  dead."  Whether 
this  story  is  true  or  not,  the  fate  of  Croesus  afforded  an  example 


THE   IONIAN   CITY   STATE -ATHENS  129 

of  the  truth  of  these  words  ;  for  he  was  afterward  driven  from 
his  throne.  Indeed,  Solon  also  learned  their  truth ;  for  when 
he  returned  to  Athens,  he  found  his  native  city,  for  whose  hap- 
piness he  had  so  faithfully  labored,  still  disturbed  by  civil 
strife,  and  he  was  led  to  believe  that  his  work  was  a  failure. 


III.       PiSISTRATUS    AND    THE    ATHENIAN    TyRANNY 

Political  Parties  at  Athens.  —  As  the  old  distinctions  based 
upon  birth  —  the  high  born  and  the  low  born  —  were  passing 
away,  new  parties  were  growing  up,  composed  of  men  who 
were  looking  after  their  own  special  interests.  These  parties 
took  their  names  from  the  localities  where  they  received  their 
strongest  support.  There  were,  in  the  first  place,  the  wealthy 
landowners,  whose  estates  occupied  the  most  fertile  part  of  the 
lowlands,  and  who  were  hence  called  the  Men  of  the  Plain ; 
they  formed  the  extreme  aristocratic  or  oligarchical  party.  In 
the  next  place,  there  were  the  small  farmers,  shepherds,  and 
herdsmen  living  upon  the  highlands,  and  therefore  called  the 
Men  of  the  Hill;  they  formed  the  extreme  democratic  or  popular 
party.  Finally,  there  were  the  merchants  and  traders  engaged 
in  commerce,  and  hence  called  the  Men  of  the  Shore;  they 
formed  the  moderate  or  conservative  party.  During  the  absence 
of  Solon  these  parties  were  engaged  in  bitter  struggles.  In  the 
midst  of  this  strife  and  discord,  one  of  the  chief  defects  of  the 
Athenian  constitution  became  apparent.  This  was  the  lack 
of  a  single  executive  head,  with  sufficient  power  to  administer 
the  government  with  a  firm  hand.  The  war  between  the  par- 
ties gave  an  opportunity  for  an  ambitious  man  to  seize  the 
government,  and  to  rule  as  a  "  tyrant." 

Usurpation  of  Pisistratus.  —  The  man  who  now  played  the 
role  of  tyrant  at  Athens  was  Pisis'tratus.  He  was  an  able 
general,  a  fluent  speaker,  a  man  who  combined  culture  with 
craftiness.  Although  a  noble  by  birth,  he  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  people  and  became  the  leader  of  the  popular  party. 
To  seize  the  government  he  used  a  stratagem.     He  suddenly 


130  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

appeared  one  day  in  the  market  place  with  bloody  wounds 
inflicted  by  his  own  hand.  But  he  gave  the  people  to  believe 
that  he  had  received  these  wounds  in  defending  their  rights. 
In  spite  of  the  protest  of  Solon,  the  people  were  deceived  and 
voted  him  a  bodyguard  of  fifty  men  armed  with  clubs.  With 
this  he  seized  the  Acropolis  and  made  himself  supreme 
(560  B.C.).  After  a  rule  of  five  years  his  enemies  united  and 
he  was  driven  into  exile.  To  restore  himself  to  power  he  re- 
sorted to  another  stratagem.  This  time  he  was  drawn  into  the 
city  in  a  chariot  attended  by  a  stately  woman  dressed  in  armor 
to  represent  the  goddess  Athena,  under  whose  segis  he  claimed 
to  be  brought  back  to  power.  The  people  were  again  deceived, 
and  he  was  reinstated.'  After  a  rule  of  six  years  he  was  again 
expelled.  He  recovered  his  power  a  third  time,  not  by  a  strat- 
agem, but  by  open  force,  with  the  aid  of  a  body  of  mercenaries 
obtained  from  Argos.  From  this  time  he  was  permitted  to  rule 
until  his  death. 

The  Rule  of  Pisistratus.  —  The  methods  which  Pisistratus 
used  to  acquire  his  power  were  entirely  different  from  the 
mode  in  which  he  exercised  it  during  his  three  successive 
terms.  "  His  administration,"  says  Aristotle,  "  was  more  like 
a  constitutional  government  than  the  rule  of  a  tyrant."  He 
retained  the  political  forms  established  by  Solon,  only  taking 
care  that  his  own  supporters  should  be  elected  to  the  archon- 
ship.  He  advanced  money  to  the  poorer  people  to  aid  them 
in  obtaining  a  livelihood.  He  appointed  local  judges  in  the 
country,  so  that  the  rights  of  the  lower  classes  might  be  pro- 
tected without  their  being  obliged  to  come  to  the  city  for  jus- 
tice. He  adorned  Athens  with  public  buildings,  not  only  to 
satisfy  his  own  love  of  art,  but  to  give  work  to  the  unem- 
ployed. He  was  a  patron  of  literature  and  collected  a  library 
which  he  threw  open  to  the  i)ublic.  He,  is  said  to  have  made 
the  first  collection  of  Homer's  poems.  He  gathered  about 
him  the  poets  and  artists  of  Greece.  He  also  encouraged  com- 
merce and  formed  alliances  with  foreign  states.  He  encour- 
aged in  every  way  the  worship  of  the  gods,  and   instituted 


THE  IONIAN  CITY  STATE  — ATHENS  131 

splendid  festivals  in  their  honor.  Although  a  tyrant  by  name, 
he  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  Athenian  rulers,  and  began  the 
policy  which  afterward  made  Athens  the  literary  and  art 
center  of  Greece. 

Fall  of  the  Athenian  Tyranny.  —  At  the  death  of  Pisistratus, 
the  power  passed  into  the  hands  of  his  two  sons,  Hip'pias  and 
Hippar'chus.  Hippias,  being  the  elder,  was  really  the  head  of 
the  government.  During  the  early  years  of  his  rule  he  fol- 
lowed his  father's  example,  governing  the  people  with  mild- 
ness and  encouraging  art  and  literature.  But  a  conspiracy 
was  formed,  led  by  the  noted  tyrannicides,  Harmo'dius  and 
Aristogi'ton,  resulting  in  the  assassination  of  the  younger 
brother,  Hipparchus.  Embittered  by  this  deed,  Hippias  be- 
came a  tyrant  in  fact.  He  put  to  death  his  suspected  ene- 
mies. He  banished  those  whom  he  feared.  He  surrounded 
himself  with  a  bodyguard  of  foreign  mercenaries.  He  imposed 
arbitrary  taxes  upon  the  people.  As  the  result  of  four  years 
of  such  despotic  rule,  the  name  of  tyrant  was  made  forever 
odious  to  the  Athenians.  But  Athens  was  helpless  to  throw 
off  this  tyranny  without  the  aid  of  the  gods  or  the  help  of 
some  foreign  power.  The  gods,  accordingly,  sent  a  foreign 
power  to  their  relief.  The  Spartans  were  enjoined  by  the 
Delphic  oracle  to  go  to  the  aid  of  Athens.  Under  their  king, 
Cleom'enes,  the  Spartan  army  entered  the  city  and  invested 
the  citadel.  The  children  of  Hippias  were  captured  by  the 
Spartans ;  and  to  obtain  their  release,  Hippias  surrendered  the 
Acropolis  (510  B.C.).  He  was  permitted  to  retire  into  Asia 
Minor;  the  Athenians  passed  against  him  and  his  family  a 
sentence  of  perpetual  exile,  and  he  became  an  open  and  bitter 
enemy  of  Greece. 

TV.   Clisthenes   and   the   Athenian   Democracy 

Transition  from  Tyranny  to  Democracy.  —  During  the  fifty 
years  which  extended  from  the  rise  of  Pisistratus  to  the  fall 
of   Hippias   (560-510  b.c),  the   Athenians  were  able  to  see 


132  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

the  dangers  of  a  tyranny.  They  learned  that  the  character 
of  a  tyranny  depended  upon  the  character  of  the  tyrant. 
If  the  power  was  in  the  hands  of  an  able  and  generous 
man  like  Pisi stratus,  the  people  might  prosper;  but  if  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  a  suspicious  and  violent  man  like  Hippias, 
their  liberties  would  be  endangered.  The  man  who  now 
appeared  as  the  friend  of  the  people  was  Clis'thenes,  who  had 
taken  part  in  overthrowing  the  recent  tyranny.  He  was  an 
able  and  far-seeing  statesman,  and  one  of  the  greatest  political 
reformers  that  Greece  ever  produced.  Although  not  devoid 
of  personal  ambition,  he  identified  his  own  interests  with  those 
of  the  people,  and  placed  the  government  upon  a  more  demo- 
cratic basis. 

New  Territorial  Basis  of  the  State.  —  The  political  organiza- 
tion had  hitherto  been  based  upon  the  old  Ionian  tribes,  which 
were  made  up  of  phratries  and  clans.  To  possess  any  political 
rights,  one  must,  therefore,  belong  to  one  of  the  old  Ionian 
families.  But  Clisthenes  laid  a  new  foundation  to  the  state, 
by  dividing  the  territory  into  local  districts  and  giving  to 
all  persons  residing  in  these  districts  a  share  in  the  govern- 
ment. The  smallest  district  was  the  deme,  or  township, 
which  had  its  own  local  government,  with  its  town  officers 
and  its  town  meeting.  A  number  of  demes  (generally  three 
or  four)  made  the  next  larger  district,  the  trittys,  which 
might  be  compared  to  our  county.  There  were  thirty  of  these 
trittyes  —  a  group  of  ten  in  and  about  the  city  of  Athens, 
of  ten  along  the  coast,  and  of  ten  in  the  intermediate  territory. 
To  make  his  new  local  tribe,  which  was  a  sort  of  senatorial 
district,  Clisthenes  selected  by  lot  one  trittys  from  the  city 
group,  one  from  the  coast  group,  and  one  from  the  interior 
group.  In  this  way  the  territory  of  Attica  was  divided  into 
ten  local  tribes,  each  one  of  which  was  made  up  of  people  living 
in  different  localities.  This  ingenious  arrangement  tended  to 
break  down  the  old  strife  between  the  men  of  the  Plain,  the 
Hill,  and  the  Shore.  We  might  compare  the  old  Ionian  state  of 
Solon  with  the  new  Attic  state  of  Clisthenes  as  follows :  — 


THE   IONIAN  CITY   STATE  — ATHENS 


133 


The  Old  Ionian  State 

4  Ionian  tribes. 
12  pliratries,  or  brotherhoods. 
560  (?)  clans,  or  gentes. 


The  New  Attic  State 

10  local  tribes. 

30  trittyes,  or  county  districts. 
100  (?)  demes,  or  townships. 


The  New  Government  of  Clisthenes.  —  The  new  territorial  divi- 
sion of  the  people  furnished  a  new  basis  for  the  various  branches 
of  the  government. 

1.  The  assembly  (ecde'sia)  was  now  made  up  of  all  per- 
sons who  were  enrolled  in  the  various  demes,  whether  they 
were  members  of  the  old  Ionic  tribes  or  not.  The  assembly 
became  the  real  sovereign  power  in  the  state.  It  passed  upon 
questions  relating  not  only  to  peace  and  war,  but  also  to  reve- 
nues and  taxation,  and  to  domestic  and  foreign  policy. 

2.  The  senate  (boide)  was  now  composed  of  five  hundred 
members,  fifty  of  whom  were  chosen  by  lot  from  each  local 
tribe,  or  senatorial  district.  It  took  the  place  of  the  old  Coun- 
cil of  Four  Hundred  chosen  from  the  Ionian  tribes.  It  formed 
a  deliberative  body,  preparing  measures  to  be  submitted  to  the 
assembly,  and  it  also  had  a  supervision  over  matters  of  ad- 
ministration. 

3.  The  chief  magistrates  were  still  the  nine  archons,  who 
were,  however,  now  chosen  by  lot  from  candidates  presented 
by  the  demes.  About  this  time  there  was  a  new  arrangement 
made  in  respect  to  military  officials.  Ten  generals  (strate'gi) 
were  elected,  —  probably  one  from  each  tribe,  —  to  command 
the  ten  tribal  regiments ;  while  the  polemarch  remained  the 
commander  in  chief  of  the  whole  army.  The  ten  generals  came 
in  time  to  supersede  the  archons  as  chief  magistrates  of  the  state. 

Protection  against  Tyranny;  Ostracism.  —  The  great  purpose 
of  Clisthenes  was  to  insure  the  political  equality  of  all  citizens. 
The  changes  which  he  made  in  the  constitution  were  sufficient 
to  protect  the  state  against  the  dangers  of  aristocracy.  Neither 
birth  nor  wealth  now  conferred  any  special  privileges.  It  was 
also  necessary  to  protect  the  state  against  the  dangers  of  tyr- 
anny, or  the  usurpation  of  power  by  a  prominent  party  leader. 


134  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

Clisthenes  decided  to  leave  to  the  people  themselves  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  presence  of  any  man  threatened  the  safety  of 
the  state.  If  at  any  special  meeting  of  the  assembly,  called 
for  that  purpose,  six,  thousand  votes  were  cast  against  any 
man,  that  man  was  obliged  to  withdraw  from  the  city  for  ten 
years.  As  these  votes  were  written  upon  pieces  of  earthen- 
ware (ostraca),  the  process  was  called  "  ostracism."  It  was  in- 
tended, not  as  a  punishment,  but  as  a  precaution.  The  person 
ostracized  lost  none  of  his  rights  of  person  or  property ;  he 
simply  went  into  an  honorable  exile.  This  peculiar  custom, 
while  it  was  intended  as  a  safeguard  against  tyranny,  was 
yet  capable  of  abuse  and  of  being  used  for  partisan  purposes. 
The  Triumph  of  Democracy.  —  From  this  review  we  can  see 
how  the  ancient  monarchy  of  Athens  was  gradually  transformed 
into  a  well-organized  democracy.  The  old  king,  who  held  his 
office  by  hereditary  right,  was  displaced  by  the  archons,  chosen 
at  first  from  the  nobles,  and  finally  from  the  whole  body  of 
the  people.  The  ancient  Council  of  Elders,  or  war  chiefs, 
passed  into  the  Council  of  the  Areopagus,  which  consisted  of 
the  ex-archons,  and  which  was  supplemented  by  new  councils, 
—  at  first,  the  Council  of  Four  Hundred  and  One,  established 
by  Draco,  and  chosen  from  the  wealthy  classes ;  afterward,  the 
Council  of  Four  Hundred,  established  by  Solon,  and  chosen 
from  the  four  Ionian  tribes ;  and,  finally,  the  Council  of  Five 
Hundred,  established  by  Clisthenes,  and  chosen  from  the  mem- 
bers of  the  new  Attic  tribes.  The  assembly  had  passed  through 
somewhat  similar  changes,  until  it  had  come  to  be  composed 
of  the  whole  body  of  citizens,  and  to  hold  the  sovereign  power 
of  the  state.  As  Athens  came  to  represent  the  principle  of 
democracy,  the  Spartans  came  to  be  the  chief  defenders  of 
the  aristocratic  principle.  Under  their  king,  Cleomenes,  they 
even  invaded  Attica  and  attempted  to  overthrow  the  new 
Athenian  constitution;  but  these  efforts  proved  a  failure. 
With  her  democratic  institutions  firmly  established,  Athens 
continued  to  grow  in  strength  until  she  became  the  chief  city 
of  Hellas  and  the  champion  of  Greek  liberty. 


THE   IONIAN   CITY   STATE  — ATHENS  135 


SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Smith,  Ch.  10,  "Early  History  of  Atliens  to  Pisistratus"  (lO).i 

Oman,  Ch.  11,  "Early  History  of  Attica"  j  Ch.  13,  "  Solon  and  Peisis- 
tratus"  (10). 

Bury,  Ch.  4,  "  Union  of  Attica  and  the  Foundation  of  the  Athenian  De- 
mocracy" (10). 

Curtius,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  2,  "History  of  Attica"  (11). 

Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  9,  "Early  Attica"  ;  Ch.  13,  "Solon"  (11). 

Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  26,  "  Athens  to  the  Time  of  Solon  "  ;  Ch.  27,  "  Athens 
under  Peisistratus  and  his  Sons  "'(11). 

Grote,  Part  II.,  Ch.  11,  "  Solonian  Laws  and  Constitution"   (11). 

Cox,  Greek  Statesmen,  "Solon,"  "Peisistratos,"  " Kleisthenes "  (26). 

Plutarch,  "Solon"  (13). 

Aristotle,  Athenian  Constitution,  Chs.  3-21  (13). 


SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  Constitution  of  Clisthenes.  —  Oman,  Ch.  16  (10)  ;  Cox,  Ch. 
12  (10)  ;  Abbott,  Ch.  15  (11)  ;  Bury,  pp.  211-215  (10)  ;  Allcroft,  Vol.  I.,  Ch. 
15  (10)  ;  Curtius,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  401-411  (11)  ;  Grote,  Part  I.,  Ch.  31  (11)  ; 
Greenidge,  pp.  157-162  (20)  ;  Gilbert,  pp.  145-152  (20). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  wiU  be  found. 


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COLONIES  OX  THE 

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SCALE  OF  MILES 


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I.L.  POATES.  EN6R. 


137 


LIST   OF  PRINCIPAL   GREEK  COLONIES 


The  name  of  the  parent  colony  is  placed  in  parenthesis,  together  with 
the  date  of  settlement  when  known.  These  dates  can  be  regarded  as  only- 
approximate,  and  are  variously  given  by  different  authorities  ;  the  dates 
below  are  generally  those  accepted  by  Grote. 


I.  Eastern  Colonies. 

1.  Northern  ^gean. 

Methone  (Eretria,  720  e.g.). 
Mende  (Eretria). 
Torone  (Chalcis). 
Olynthus  (Chalcis,  480  b.c). 
Potidi«a  (Corinth). 
Abdera  (Teos,  553  b.c). 
Maronea  (Chios), 
^nos  (^olia). 

2.  Propontis. 

Abydos  (Miletus). 
Lampsacus  (Miletus,  650  b.c.)  . 
Cyzicus  (Miletus,  756  b.c). 
Chalcedon  (Megara,  674  b.c). 
Byzantium  (Megara, 657  b.c). 
Perinthus  (Samos,  600  b.c). 
Sestos  (^olia). 

3.  Euxine  or  Black  Sea. 
(a)  Southern  and  Eastern  Coast. 

Heraclea  (Megara,  560  b.c). 
Sinope  (Miletus,  770  b.c). 
Trapezus  (Sinope). 
Phasis  (Miletus). 
Dioscurias  (Miletus). 
(&)  Western  and  Northern  Coast. 
Apollonia  (Miletus). 
Mesembria  (Megara). 
Odessus  (Miletus). 
Istrus  (Miletus). 
Olbia  (Miletus). 
Heraclea  (Heraclea  Pontica). 
Tanais  (Miletus?). 
Phanagoria  (Miletus). 

4.  Africa. 

Naucratis  (Miletus,  660  b.c). 
Cyrene  (Thera). 
Barca  (Cyrene). 

138 


II.  Western  Colonies. 

1.  Adriatic  Coast. 
Corcyra  (Corinth,  730  b.c). 
Ambracia  (Corinth,  650  b.c). 
Apollonia  (Corinth,  600  b.c). 
Epidamnus     (Corcyra^     625 

B.C.). 

2.  Italy, 
(a)  Southern  Coast. 

Tarentum  (Sparta,  707  b.c). 
Sybaris  (Achaia,  720  b.c). 
Croton  (Achaia,  710  b.c). 
Locri  (Locris,  683  b.c). 
Rhegium  (Chalcis,  720  b.c). 
(6)  Western  Coast. 

Cumae  (Chalcis,  1050  b.c?). 
Neapolis  (Cumse). 
Posidonia  (Achaia). 
Velia  (Phocsea,  550  b.c). 

3.  Sicily. 

(a)  Ionian  Colonies. 
Naxos  (Chalcis,  735  b.c). 
Catana  (Naxos,  729  b.c). 
Zancle  (Chalcis,  728  b.c). 
Himera  (Zancle,  648  b.c). 

(b)  Dorian  Colonies. 
Syracuse  (Corinth,  734  b.c). 
Gela  (Rhodes,  690  b.c). 
Agrigentum  (Gela,  582  b.c). 
Selinus  (Megara,  630  b.c). 

4.  Gaul. 
Massilia  (Phocsea,  697  b.c). 
Olbia  (Massilia). 


CHAPTER   XI 

THE   EXPANSION.  OF   GREECE  — THE   COLONIES 
I.    The  Extension  of  Hellas 

The  Hellenic  World.  —  We  look  upon  Sparta  and  Athens  as 
the  two  most  important  cities  of  Greece ;  but  we  must  not  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that  the  Hellenic  world  extended  far  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  these  two  states.  There  were  many  other 
cities  which  passed  through  a  similar  political  experience. 
Some  of  them,  like  Sparta,  formed  aristocratic  governments. 
Others,  like  Athens,  worked  their  way  toward  democratic  in- 
stitutions. The  most  important  of  the  aristocratic  cities,  or 
oligarchies,  were  Thebes  in  Boeotia,  Chalcis  and  Ere'tria  on  the 
island  of  Euboea,  and  also  Corinth,  Megara,  and  Sicyon,  on  or 
near  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  The  most  important  of  the  dem- 
ocratic cities,  after  Athens,  were  Argos  and  Elis.  Moreover, 
these  political  movements  were  not  confined  to  Greece  proper, 
that  is,  to  European  Hellas ;  they  extended  to  that  part  of  Hel- 
las lying  upon  the  Asiatic  coasts.  Here,  in  the  presence  of 
Oriental  monarchies,  the  Greek  spirit  of  freedom  showed  itself 
in  political  agitations  and  revolutions.  The  whole  Hellenic 
world  seemed  imbued  with  a  common  Hellenic  spirit  —  the 
spirit  of  liberty  and  of  local  independence. 

Colonial  Expansion.  —  At  the  same  time  that  the  cities  of 
Hellas,  both  in  Europe  and  in  Asia,  were  working  out  the 
problem  of  free  government,  the  boundaries  of  the  Hellenic 
world  were  widening  by  the  establishment  of  colonies.  The 
causes  leading  to  the  colonial  expansion  of  Greece  Were  various. 
In  the  first  place,  the  growth  of  population  required  the  forma- 
tion of  new  settlements ;  and  these  could  be  formed  only  in  the 
unoccupied  lands  which  bordered  upon  the  adjoining  seas.     In 

3iorey's  greek  hist.  —  9  139 


140  BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 

the  next  place,  the  political  discontent  resulting  from  aristo- 
cratic oppression  led  many  people  to  seek  a  refuge  in  new- 
lands.  In  their  new  settlements  they  hoped  to  find  more  free- 
dom than  they  had  possessed  at  home.  Hence,  we  find  a  large 
number  of  colonies  established  by  cities  subject  to  aristocratic 
rule.  Finally,  the  growing  spirit  of  commerce  furnished  a 
strong  impulse  to  colonization.  The  coasts  of  the  ^gean  were 
indented  with  natural  harbors;  and  the  Greeks  early  shared 
with  the  Phoenicians  the  spirit  of  commerce  and  the  trade 
routes  of  the  sea.  With  the  decline  of  the  Phoenician  powder, 
the  Greeks  became  the  leading  commercial  people  of  the  East. 
Like  the  Phoenicians,  they  dotted  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean with  their  trading  posts.  Greece  thus  became  the 
mother  of  colonies,  and  from  the  eighth  to  the  sixth  century 
(750-550  B.C.),  the  territory  of  Hellas  was  continually  growing 
wider  and  wider. 

Character  of  the  Greek  Colony.  —  The  Greek  colony  was  a 
community  of  Greek  citizens  transported  to  a  new  land.  It 
was  generally  the  offshoot  of  a  single  city,  although  one  colony 
might  sometimes  be  formed  by  the  people  of  different  cities. 
The  Greek  colony  carried  with  it  the  traditions,  the  customs, 
the  language,  and  the  religion  of  the  parent  city.  Wherever 
it  might  be  planted,  it  continued  to  bear  the  blossoms  and 
fruits  of  Greek  culture.  The  founding  of  a  colony  was  a  mat- 
ter of  so  much  importance  that  it  was  customary  to  consult  the 
oracle  at  Delphi  to  ascertain  whether  the  undertaking  would 
meet  with  the  divine  sanction.  If  the  response  was  favorable, 
a  "founder"  was  appointed  to  lead  the  colonists  to  their  new 
home.  The  sacred  fire  taken  from  the  altar  of  the  parent  city 
was  carried  with  the  colouists  as  a  symbol  of  their  filial  devo- 
tion. The  infant  colony  worshiped  the  same  gods  as  the 
parent  city  ;  and  in  every  way  showed  tire  sacred  reverence  due 
from  a  daughter  to  a  mother.  But  in  its  political  life  the  col- 
ony was  entirely  independent  of  the  parent  state.  Though 
bound  by  filial  affection,  it  was  not  subject  to  parental  author- 
ity.    It  formed  its  own  government,  made  its  own  laws,  and 


EXPANSION   OF   GREECE  — THE   COLONIES  141 

was  expected  to  work  out  its  own  destiny.^  The  colonies  thus 
became  new  centers  of  Greek  life. 

The  Colonizing  Cities.  —  The  cities  of  Greece  were  not 
equally  zealous  in  the  planting  of  colonies.  Of  the  chief  cities, 
Athens  was  one  of  the  least  conspicuous  in  this  movement. 
This  may  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that  she  was  at  first  more 
devoted  to  politics  than  to  commerce,  or  to  the  fact  that  her 
subjects  were  less  discontented  than  elsewhere.  Sparta,  on 
account  of  her  distance  from  the  sea,  was  also  not  important  as 
a  colonizing  state.  But  her  subjects  —  especially  the  Messe- 
nians  —  were  sometimes  driven  by  her  oppressive  government 
to  seek  a  refuge  beyond  her  dominion.  Of  the  cities  of  Greece 
proper  the  foremost  in  the  colonizing  movement  were  Chalcis 
and   Eretria,  situated  on 

the  island  of  Euboea ;  and  //^Af0^^lX>^\  X^^^ 
of  these  two  cities  Chalcis 
was  the  leader.  This  city 
had  a  favorable  seaboard ; 
it  commanded  the  copper 
trade  of  the  East ;  and  its 
aristocratic      government  ^^^^  ^^  Eretria 

was  a  cause  of  popular  discontent.  These  facts  are  sufficient 
to  explain  its  colonizing  spirit.  Next  after  Chalcis  and  Eretria 
should  be  mentioned  Megara  and  Corinth,  both  of  which  were 
favorably  situated  for  commerce,  and  were  often  misruled  by 
an  oppressive  oligarchy.  But  the  city  which  surpassed  all 
others  as  a  colonizing  center  was  situated  not  in  Europe,  but 
in  Asia.  This  was  Miletus,  the  most  celebrated  city  of  Ionia. 
It  possessed  four  large  harbors,  and  seems  to  have  fallen  heir 
to  the  commercial  enterprise  of  the  Phoenicians.  Miletus  is 
said  to  have  been  the  mother  of  eighty  colonies.  Other,  less 
important,  colonizing  cities  of  Ionia  were  Phocaea,  Teos,  and 

1  This  statement  does  not  apply  to  the  subject  colonies,  or  "cleruchies," 
sent  out  by  Athens  as  a  means  of  maintaining  her  influence  in  a  foreign  land. 
In  this  case  the  settlers  retained  their  political  relations  and  rights  as  mem- 
bers of  the  parent  state. 


142  BEGINNINGS   OF  GREECE 

Samos.  A  few  colonies  were  established  by  the  ^olian  cities 
of  the  north,  and  a  still  less  number  by  the  Dorian  cities  of 
the  south  of  Asia  Minor.  (See  maps,  pages  80  and  136,  137.) 
Areas  of  Colonization.  —  The  lands  open  to  Greek  coloniza- 
tion were  the  unoccupied  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
Black  seas.  Some  of  these  lands  had  already  been  held  by 
Phoenician  colonists;  but  the  decline  of  Phoenicia  gave  an 
opportunity  to  the  Greeks,  either  to  take  possession  of  the 
old  Phoenician  sites,  or  to  establish  new  settlements.  The 
new  lands  were  generally  inhabited  by  a  barbarous  people ; 
but  the  native  products  of  these  lands  afforded  a  strong  in- 
ducement to  Grecian  traders.  There  were  two  general  areas 
open  to  colonization,  which  we  may  distinguish  as  the  Eastern 
and  the  Western.  The  Eastern  area  comprised  the  northern 
coasts  of  the  ^gean  Sea;  the  shores  of  the  Propon'tis  with 
its  tributary  straits,  the  Hellespont  and  the  Bosphorus;  the 
extensive  coast  of  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea;  and  also  the 
northeastern  coast  of  Africa.  The  Western  area  comprised 
the  western  coasts  of  Illyr'icum  and  Epirus ;  the  coasts  of 
southern  Italy  and  Sicily;  and  the  seaboards  of  the  western 
Mediterranean,  including  southern  Gaul,  and  extending  along 
the  shores  of  Spain. 

II.    The  Eastern  Colonies  of  Hellas 

Colonies  of  the  Northern  ^gean.  —  If  we  desired  to  make  a 
journey  to  the  various  Greek  colonies,  we  should  naturally  set 
out  from  the  island  of  Euboea  and  .coast  along  the  northern 
shores  of  the  Mgesrn.  Here  we  should  find  the  towns  settled 
chiefly  by  the  Euboean  cities  of  Chalcis  and  Eretria.  The 
first  colony  which  we  touch  is  Metho'ne,  founded  by  Eretria 
on  the  Thermaic  Gulf.  But  the  most  important  part  of  this 
coast  is  Chalcid'ice,  —  a  three-pronged  peninsula  jutting  far  out 
into  the  sea,  —  which  took  its  name  from  Chalcis  in  Euboea. 
On  this  peninsula  we  should  find  more  than  thirty  towns 
settled    by    Chalcis   and   Eretria,    among   which   are   Mende, 


EXPANSION  OF   GREECE  — THE  COLONIES  143 

Olyn'thus,  and  Toro'iie.  The  only  important  city  of  Dorian 
origin  was  Potidse'a,  founded  by  Corinth.  As  we  proceed 
farther  to  the  east,  we  come  to  certain  cities  founded  by  the 
Asiatic  lonians;  for  example,  Abde'ra,  founded  by  Teos,  and 
Marone'a  by  Chios.  Beyond  these  are  the  two  chief  towns 
settled  by  the  ^olians  of  Asia  Minor,  namely,  ^nos  on  the 
Thracian  Sea,  and  Sestos  on  the  Hellespont.  The  chief  sources 
of  wealth  on  these  northern  coasts  were  the  rich  deposits  of 
gold,  silver,  and  copper,  and  the  valuable  timber  gathered  from 
the  forests  and  used  for  shipbuilding. 

Colonies  on  the  Propontis.  —  As  we  sail  through  the  Helles- 
pont into  the  Propontis,  we  pass  several  Ionian  cities  —  Aby'- 
dos,  Lamp'sacus,  and  Cyz'icus  —  founded  by  Miletus.  The 
lonians  not  only  made  extensive  settlements  on  the  southern 
coast  of  the  Propontis ;  they  also  established  stations  on  the 
northern  coast,  like  that  of  Perin'thus,  founded  by  the  people 
of  Samos.  But  the  lonians  were  not  the  only  people  who 
found  their  way  into  this  little  inland  sea.  The  Dorian  peo- 
ple of  Megara  established  the  city  of  Chalce'don  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Bosphorus,  or  the  strait  leading  into  the 
Euxine.  The  earlier  colonists  evidently  had  shut  their  eyes 
to  the  great  advantages  of  the  opposite  shore ;  for  the  Delphic 
oracle  is  said  to  have  advised  the  later  colonists  of  Megara  to 
"  build  opposite  the  city  of  the  blind."  The  Megarians  thus 
obtained  the  honor  of  founding  the  most  important  emporium 
of  the  East,  the  colony  of  Byzan'tium  —  which  afterward 
became  the  city  of  Constantinople. 

Colonies  on  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea.  —  On  passing  through 
the  Bosphorus  we  enter  the  great  expanse  of  the  Euxine,  or 
the  Black  Sea.  On  account  of  its  forbidding  shores  this  sea 
was  at  first  known  to  the  Greeks  as  the  Axei'nos  (inhospi- 
table) ;  but  when  its  coasts  had  become  covered  with  Greek 
colonies  and  made  attractive  to  the  stranger,  it  was  called  the 
Euxei'nos  (hospitable).  It  was  on  the  shores  of  this  sea  that 
the  Ionian  city  of  Miletus,  following  in  the  track  of  Phoeni- 
cian merchants,  established  the  largest  part  of  her  colonies. 


144  BEGINNINGS  OF  GREECE 

Early  in  the  eighth  century  (770  b.c.)  she  planted  her  first 
colony  at  Sino'pe  on  a  projecting  headland  of  Asia  Minor. 
Farther  east  arose  the  flourishing  town  of  Trape'zus  (Trebi- 
zond),  which  soon  became  an  important  emporium.  At  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  sea,  in  the  fabled  land  of  Colchis, 
were  established  other  trading  posts,  like  Phasis  and  Dioscu'- 
rias.  Turning  back  to  the  Bosphorus  once  more,  let  us  follow 
along  the  western  and  northern  coasts  of  the  Euxine,  among 
the  barbarous  Thracians  and  Scythians.  Here  the  colonizing 
movement  was  slower.  But  along  these  coasts  the  merchants 
of  Miletus  had  opened  ports  at  Apollo'nia,  Odes'sus,  Istrus,  and 
other  places  between  the  Bosphorus  and  the  Danube.  Beyond 
the  Danube  to  the  north  were  erected  outlying  stations,  like 
Ol'bia,  Phanagori'a,  and  Tan'ais,  the  last-mentioned  place  being 
the  remotest  frontier  of  Greek  civilization.  The  advantages 
gained  by  the  Ionian  city  of  Miletus  by  planting  so  many 
colonies  in  the  Black  Sea  spurred  her  Dorian  rival,  the  city 
of  Megara,  to  make  similar  efforts.  As  a  result,  Megarian 
settlements  were  established  in  the  places  left  vacant  by 
Miletus  —  such  as  Mesem'bria  on  the  western  coast  and  Heracle'a 
(Pontica)  on  the  southern  coast,  from  which  a  town  of  the  same 
name  was  settled  on  the  opposite  shore  in  the  Chersone'sus 
Tau'rica  (Crimea).  From  this  great  region  of  the  Black  Sea, 
the  Greeks  were  supplied  with  many  valuable  commodities.  Its 
mines,  its  fisheries,  its  cattle,  its  timber,  its  fields  of  grain, 
besides  its  supply  of  slaves,  contributed  to  the  wealth  of  the 
merchants  and  to  the  industrial  development  of  the  Greek 
peo})le. 

Colonies  in  Africa.  —  As  we  leave  the  shores  of  the  ^gean 
and  the  Euxine  and  pass  to  the  south,  we  find  new  evidences 
of  commercial  enterprise.  The  northern  shores  of  Africa  were 
for  the  most  part  held  by  Carthage  and  Egypt.  Carthage,  a 
colony  of  Tyre,  was  building  up  a  commercial  empire  of  its 
own.  But  Egypt  for  a  long  time  took  little  interest  in  foreign 
trade ;  and  the  country  was  closed  to  the  merchants  of  other 
lands.    It  was  due  to  the  enterprising  spirit  of  Miletus,  as  well 


EXPANSION   OF   GREECE  — THE   COLONIES  145 

as  to  the  exceptionally  liberal  policy  of  the  Egyptian  king 
Psaminetichus,  that  the  Nile  was  opened  to  Greek  traders. 
On  the  Delta  of  this  river  was  established  the  commercial 
station  Nau'cratis.  This  station  j&nally  grew  into  an  extensive 
Greek  settlement,  from  which  Egyptian  commodities,  as  well 
as  Egyptian  ideas,  flowed  into  Hellas.  To  the  west  of  the  Nile 
the  inhabitants  of  the  little  island  of  Thera  formed  a  colony 
at  C^re^e,  which  itself  became  a  colonizing  center,  planting 
settlements  at  Barca  and  other  places  along  the  coast. 

III.    The  Western  Colonies  of  Hellas 

Colonies  in  Epirus  and  lUyricum.  —  In  making  a  tour  of  the 
western  colonies  one  would  set  sail  from  Corinth,  pass  through 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  and 
visit  first  the  settlements 
planted  by  the  Corinthi- 
ans on  the  shores  of  Epi- 
rus and  Illyricum.  Here 
one  would   land   at   Cor- 

cy'ra,  the  most  important 

.  ,       ,      p  , ,      T      •        CI  Coin  of  Corcyra 

island  01  the  Ionian  !Sea. 

Although  this  island  was  at  first  occupied  by  the  Eretrians,  it 
afterward  passed  into  the  hands  of  Corinth,  and  was  regarded 
as  properly  a  Corinthian  colony.  With  this  island  as  a  start- 
ing point,  the  Corinthians  took  possession  of  the  adjoining 
coasts,  and  settled  colonies  at  Ambra'cia,  Apollonia,  and  many 
other  places.  Far  to  the  north,  Corcyra  planted  a  colony  of 
its  own  at  Epidam'nus  on  the  coast  of  Illyricum.  But  the 
island  of  Corcyra  was  not  only  a  colonizing  center  for  north- 
western Greece ;  it  was  from  very  early  times  a  sort  of  half- 
way station  between  Greece  and  Italy. 

Colonies  in  Italy ;  Magna  Graecia.  —  On  crossing  the  Ionian 
Sea,  we  first  touch  the  heel  of  Italy,  the  ancient  country  of 
lapyg'ia ;  and  here  we  enter  into  a  new  area  of  Greek  coloni- 
zation.    When  the  Greeks  first  settled   in  Italy,  the  country 


146  BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 

was  inhabited  by  a  barbarous  people.  Southern  Italy  thus 
furnished  a  suitable  field  for  Greek  emigrants.  It  became  a 
sort  of  overflow  for  the  surplus  population  and  discontented 
people  of  the  home  lands.  If  we  coast  along  the  southern 
shores  of  Italy,  we  first  come  to  the  important  colony  of 
T^en'tum,  founded  by  refugees  from  Sparta,  and  situated 
upon  the  best  harbor  of  the  peninsula.  We  then  pass  Syb'aris 
and  Croton,  settled  by  the  overflowing  population  of  Achaia ; 
and  Locri,  whose  inhabitants  had  left  their  home  in  Locris  as 
the  result  of  civil  discord.  In  passing  through  the  Sicilian 
Straits,  we  see  to  the  right  the  important  town  of  Khe'gium, 
with  its  mixed  population  of  Chalcidians  from  Euboea  and 
Messenians  from  the  Peloponnesus.  On  the  western  coast  of 
Italy  to  the  north  we  find  three  important  colonial  centers  : 
first,  Ve'lia  (or  E'lea)  settled  by  the  people  of  Phocsea  from 
Asia  Minor ;  next,  the  celebrated  city  of  Posido'nia  (Peestum), 
named  from  the  god  of  the  sea,  and  settled  by  an  Achaean 
people  ;  finally,  to  the  north,  Cumse,  whose  origin  is  lost  in 
antiquity,  but  which  was  probably  founded  by  the  Chalcidians, 
and  from  which  sprang  up  the  neighboring  town  of  Neap'olis 
(the  new  city).  Southern  Italy  thus  furnished  many  new 
homes  for  the  Greek  people ;  and  so  thoroughly  was  it  Hellen- 
ized  that  it  received  the  name  of  Magna  Grsecia. 

Colonies  in  Sicily. — Perhaps  more  important  than  the  colo- 
nies in  Italy  were  those  established  on  the  coasts  of  Sicily. 

Like  Italy  this  island  was 
for  the  most  part  inhab- 
ited by  barbarous  people, 
although  the  Carthagini- 
ans were  already  encroach- 
ing upon  the  eastern 
extremity.     We    find    in 

Sicily  two  groups  of  colo- 
CoiN  OF  THE  Carthaginians  in  Sicily  ■  ,■,  t      • 

nies:  the  one  Ionian  to- 
ward the  north,  and  the  other  Dorian  toward  the  south.  The 
center  of  the  Ionian  group  was  Naxos,  founded  by  that  enter- 


EXPANSION   OF   GREECE  — THE   COLONIES  147 

prising  people  whom  we  have  so  often  met  before,  the  Chalcid- 

ians,  and  who  were  here   joined  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 

island  of  Kaxos  in  the  ^gean.      From  ISTaxos  in  Sicily  was 

settled   the  neighboring   town  of    Cat'ana.     The  Chalcidians 

strengthened  their  position  on  the  Sicilian  straits  by  building 

the  city  of  Zancle  (Messa'na)  on  the  shore  opposite  Kheginni. 

This  city  also  became  a  refuge  for  the  Messenians,  who  shrank 

from  the  rule  of  Sparta, 

and  from  whom  the  city 

derived    its    later    name. 

The   influence  of   Zancle 

was  paramount  along  the 

northern  coast,  where  it 

founded  new  towns,  like 

Him'era.     Turning  to  the  „  c? 

^  Coin  of  Syracuse 

south,   the  center   of  the 

Dorian  group  of  colonies  was  Syr'acuse.  This  city  was  the 
strongest  and  most  celebrated  of  all  the  cities  of  the  island. 
It  was  founded  by  Corinth,  and  became  an  important  factor  in 
the  later  struggle  between  the  Dorian  and  Ionian  states  of 
Greece.  Under  the  shadow  of  Syracuse  the  Dorian  people 
from  the  far-off  island  of  Rhodes  formed  a  settlement  at  Gela, 
which  in  turn  sent  out  a  colony  to  Agrigen'tum.  The  farthest 
outpost  on  the  southwestern  coast  was  Seli'nus,  planted  by 
Megara.  The  greater  part  of  Sicily,  like  southern  Italy,  thus 
became  Greek  in  its  population,  in  its  political  institutions, 
and  in  its  civilization. 

Colonies  in  Gaul  and  Spain.  —  It  remains  for  us  to  notice  the 
outlying  colonies  in  the  western  Mediterranean.  The  most 
hardy  of  all  the  Greek  mariners  were  probably  the  Phocseans 
of  Asia  Minor.  They  braved  the  dangers  of  the  deep  and  the 
hatred  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  succeeded  in  opening  a  trade 
route  to  the  coasts  of  Spain.  As  an  intermediate  station  they 
built  the  city  of  Massil'ia  (Marseilles),  which  became  an  impor- 
tant colonizing  center.  To  the  east  and  to  the  west  trading 
posts  were  established  which  gave  to  the  Phocaeans  the  com- 


148  BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 

mand  of  this  region.  But  with  the  exception  of  Massilia  these 
distant  ports  became  merely  trading  stations,  and  to  a  limited 
extent  only  the  centers  of  Greek  culture.  In  Spain  were  a  few 
Greek  colonies,  but  the  Hellenic  influence  never  became  strong 
on  these  distant  coasts. 

The  effect  of  the  establishment  of  these  colonies  was  to  give 
to  .the  Greeks  the  command  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  to 
make  its  coasts  a  part  of  the  Hellenic  world. 

SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Smith,  Ch.  12,  "  History  of  the  Greek  Colonies"  (10).  l 

Bury,  Ch.  2,  "Tlie  Expansion  of  Greece"  (10). 

Oman,  Ch.  9,  ",Tlie  Age  of  Colonization"  (10). 

Cox,  Ch.  8,  "  Hellas  Sporadike"  (10). 

Timayenis,  Vol.  I.,  Part  II.,  Ch.  5,  "  The  Hellenic  Colonies"  (11). 

Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  11,  "  The  Greek  Colonies"  (11). 

Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  21,  "Greek  Colonization"  (11). 

Curtius,  Vol.  I.,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  3,  "The  Hellenes  beyond  the  Archipelago" 

(11). 
Greenidge,  Ch.  3,  "Colonization"  (20). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

Greek  Commerce  and  Marine.  —  Bury,  pp.  109,  110  (10)  ;  Curtius, 
Vol.  II.,  pp.  543-546  (11)  ;  Guhl  and  Koner,  pp.  253-264  (22)  ;  Blumner, 
pp.  481-488  (22)  ;  Becker,  pp.  277-292  (22)  ;  Harper's  Class.  Diet;, 
"Navis"  (18);  Smith,  Diet.  Antiq.,  "Ships"  (18). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appendix, 
where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER   XII 

THE   CULTURE   OF  THE   EARLY   GREEK  STATES 
I.   The  Religious  Culture  of  the  Greeks 

General  Character  of  Greek  Culture.  —  We  have  now  learned 
something  of  the  most  important  cities  of  Greece  and  of  the 
various  colonies  scattered  over  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Euxine.  From  the  fact  that  these  cities  and  colonies 
were  almost  entirely  independent  of  one  another,  we  might  con- 
clude that  they  had  no  bond  of  union  and  no  common  life. 
But  this  would  be  a  mistake.  There  were  many  things  which 
gave  to  the  Greeks  a  common  national  life.  The  various  cities, 
independent  as  they  were,  all  seemed  working  toward  a 
common  political  end  —  the  overthrow  of  monarchy  and  the 
establishment  of  freer  institutions.  The  colonies,  also,  though 
scattered  and  isolated,  were  inspired  by  a  common  commercial 
spirit.  But  that  which  more  than  anything  else  made  the 
Greeks  one  people,  and  that  which  gives  to  them  a  special 
interest  to  us  to-day,  was  their  superior  type  of  culture  —  a 
culture  which  distinguished  them  from  all  other  peoples. 
Although  deriving  many  of  their  ideas  from  the  East,  they 
gave  to  these  ideas  a  new  stamp,  and  developed  a  form  of 
civilization  distinctively  their  own.  If  we  should  try  to 
characterize  this  type  of  culture,  we  might  call  it,  for  the 
want  of  a  better  word,  humanistic  —  that  is,  based  upon  human 
nature  and  pervaded  by  a  human  spirit.  The  Greeks  believed 
in  the  dignity  of  man.  They  sought  to  attain  a  symmetrical 
human  development  in  accordance  with  human  reason. 

Religion  as  a  Bond  of  Union.  —  In  considering  the  early 
phases  of  Greek  culture  we  may  regard  religion  as  the  first  and 
the  most  fundamental.     Religion  was  the  strongest  bond  of 

149 


150  BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 

union  between  the  different  elements  of  Greek  society,  and  also 
between  the  different  branches  of  the  Greek  race.  We  have 
already  seen  how  the  early  family,  the  gens,  the  phratry,  the 
tribe,  and  the  state,  were  each  bound  together  by  a  common 
worship.  So,  too,  the  Achaeans,  the  ^olians,  the  Dorians,  and 
the  lonians,  wherever  they  might  live,  all  worshiped  the  same 
gods.  However  much  they  might  be  embittered  by  mutual 
jealousies  and  by  wars,  they  found  in  their  religion  a  common 
bond  of  sympathy. 

The  Delphic  Oracle.  —  One  of  the  most  important  centers  of 
the  religious  and  national  life  of  the  Greeks  was  the  oracle 
of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  situated  in  Phocis  at  the  foot  of  Mt. 
Parnassus.  The  Greeks  looked  upon  Apollo  as  preeminently 
the  god  of  revelation,  the  god  of  light,  of  inspiration,  and  of 
prophecy.  He  had  many  oracles,  but  no  others  so  renowned  as 
that  at  Delphi.  Here,  according  to  tradition,  he  had  killed  the 
serpent  Python.  Here  was  his  most  illustrious  temple,  rich 
with  costly  gifts  bestowed  by  his  worshipers.  Here  his 
breath  was  supposed  to  issue  from  a  cleft  in  the  rock,  over 
which  stood  a  tripod  —  the  seat  of  the  Pyth'ia,  or  priestess, 
who  uttered  his  will.  The  inspired  words  of  the  Pythia  were 
taken  down  by  the  attendant  priests,  and  delivered  to  the 
people.  The  oracle  was  consulted  by  private  persons  and  by 
the  envoys  of  cities  from  every  part  of  Hellas.  Answers  were 
given  to  questions  relating  to  religion  and  politics,  to  national 
disputes,  to  wars,  and  to  colonization.  Although  these 
answers  often  had  a  double  meaning  and  were  difficult  to 
interpret,  still  the  Delphic  priests  were  able  by  means  of  this 
sacred  oracle  to  exercise  a  great  and  generally  a  beneficial 
influence  upon  the  Greek  people. 

The  Amphictyonic  League.  —  The  influence  of  the  Greek 
religion,  as  a  bond  of  union,  is  also  seen  in  the  associations 
of  cities  called  Amphic'tyonies.  They  were  leagues  of  sev- 
eral cities  or  tribes,  bound  together  under  the  guardianship  of 
some  god  and  for  the  protection  of  his  worship.  The  most 
important  of   these  was  the  famous  Amphictyon'ic   League, 


CULTURE  OF   THE   EARLY   GREEK   STATES  151 

organized  for  the  protection  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi, 
It  was  made  np  of  twelve  states  of  central  and  northern  Greece, 
which  sent  to  Delphi  a  number  of  delegates  forming  a  council. 
Although  religious  in  its  origin,  it  also  had  a  political  influence 
in  binding  the  cities  together  under  a  kind  of  legal  code.  The 
cities  were  bound,  not  only  to  protect  the  temple  of  the  god, 
but  to  respect  one  another's  rights  in  time  of  war  —  not  to  cut 
olf  the  running  water  which  supplied  a  city,  and  not  to 
destroy  any  Amphictyonic  town.  Such  restrictions  brought  a 
humane  element  into  the  conduct  of  war,  and  was  a  step  in  the 
growth  of  international  law. 

The  Panhellenic  Games.  —  The  religious  institutions  which 
perhaps  more  than  all  others  tended  to  promote  a  national 
unity  and  a  national  type  of  culture,  were  the  great  public 
games.  These  were  celebrated  in  honor  of  the  gods  ;  and  they 
show  how  closely  religion  was  connected  with  all  the  phases 
of  human  life,  —  with  art  and  literature,  and  even  with  athletic 
sports.  Chief  among  these  games  were  those  held  every  four 
years  at  Olympia  in  Elis.  The  physical  contests  consisted  in 
running,  jumping,  throwing  the  discus  or  quoit,  casting  the 
javelin,  wrestling,  boxing,  and  sometimes  in  chariot  racing. 
These  games  were  not  barbarous  sports,  but  were  subject  to 
strict  rules,  intended  to  promote  the  restraints  of  discipline 
and  the  sense  of  honor.  The  competitor  must  be  a  Greek  of 
good  character,  well  trained  and  unblemished  b}^  any  physical 
or  moral  taint.  The  reward  of  the  victor  was  a  wreath  of  olive 
leaves.  He  was  made  the  object  of  special  honors  ;  the  Olym- 
piad, or  the  succeeding  period  of  four  years,  received  his  name, 
and  his  statue  was  carved  by  a  distinguished  artist  and  set  up 
for  public  admiration.  The  games  also  furnished  a  field  for 
intellectual  culture.  Here  poets  recited  their  verses  ;  painters 
displayed  their  pictures;  and  men  of  science  explained  their 
discoveries.  Olympia  became  adorned  with  noble  buildings  — 
especially  the  temple  of  Zeus.  The  multitude  which  gathered 
here  from  every  part  of  Hellas  carried  back  to  their  homes 
the  feeling  of  a  common  kinship,  and  the  love  of  Greek  ideals. 


152 


CULTURE   OF   THE   EARLY   GREEK   STATES 


153 


Other,  less  noted,  games  were  the  Pythian,  given  in  honor  of 
Apollo  near  his  shrine  at  Delphi ;  the  Ne'raeau,  in  honor 
of  Zeus  at  jSTemea  in  Argolis ;  and  the  Isthmian,  in  honor  of 
Poseidon  on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  These  four  Panhellenic 
games  were  among  the  most  important  features  in  the  Greek 
national  life.  In  them  we  see  "  all  the  Greeks  united  in  the 
common  practice  of  their  religion,  and  in  the  common  observ- 
ance of  their  customs,  pursuing  the  same  aims  of  physical  and 
intellectual  improvement,  and  at  peace  with  one  another  for 
at  least  a  small  part  of  the  year,  even  though  war  might  be 
raging  among  the  various  states  "  (Holm). 

Special  Religious  Festivals.  —  Besides  these  general  celebra- 
tions which  belonged  to  the  whole  of  Greece,  there  were  special 
festivals  which  were  more  local  in  their 
character.  These  were  holiday  enter- 
tainments given  in  honor  of  certain  dei- 
ties, and  for  the  sake  of  social  recreation. 
They  consisted  of  processions,  singing, 
dancing,  games,  and  other  diversions  in 
which  the  people  took  a  part.  There 
were  a  number  of  these  festivals  in  At- 
tica. The  most  important  of  them  were  : 
the  Panathenae'a,  given  in  honor  of 
Athena;  the  Dionys'ia,  in  honor  of  the 
god  of  wine,  Dionysus;  and  the  Eleu- 
sin'ia,  in  honor  of  the  goddess  Demeter. 
The  last-named  festival  was  of  peculiar 
interest,  especially  to  those  who  had 
been  initiated  into  the  secret  rites  of 
this  worship.     It  consisted  of  a  solemn 

procession  in  which  every  one  might  take  part,  from  Athens 
by  the  "  sacred  way  "  to  the  city  of  Eleusis,  the  seat  of  the 
mysterious  worship  of  the  goddess.  The  secret  ceremonies 
and  doctrines  attending  this  worship  were  called  the  "Eleu- 
sinian  mysteries,"  of  which  no  one  was  supposed  to  have  any 
knowledge  except  the  initiated. 


Panathenaic  Vase 

(6th  century  B.C.) 


154  BEGINNINGS   OF   GIIEECE 

II.    The  Beginnings  of  Gkeek  Art 

Character  and  Sources  of  Greek  Art.  —  The  art  of  Greece,  like 
that  of  the  Orient,  was  closely  related  to  religion.  But  Greek 
art  was  as  different  from  Oriental  art  as  the  Greek  religion 
was  different  from  the  Oriental  religion.  The  gods  of  Baby- 
lon, who  dwelt  among  the  stars,  could  be  approached  only  by 
lofty  temples,  towering  toward  the  sky.  The  grim  religion  of 
Egypt  produced  imposing  structures  which  were  gigantic  and 
awe-inspiring.  But  the  Greek  religion  aj^pealed  more  strongly 
to  human  sympathy  and  revealed  a  finer  sense  of  beauty.  It 
produced  an  art  which  showed  the  marks  of  taste  and  reason, 
of  moderation,  of  symmetry,  and  proper  proportion.  Some  of 
the  early  features  of  Greek  art  were  no  doubt  derived  from 
the  East ;  but  its  distinctive  character  was  due  to  the  refined 
taste  of  the  Greeks  themselves.  That  which  we  most  admire 
in  a  Greek  temple  or  a  Greek  statue  is  that  combination  of 
artistic  qualities  —  simplicity  of  design,  grace  of  form,  sym- 
metry of  structure,  and  sincerity  of  expression —  which  we  can 
find  in  no  earlier  people. 

The  Greek  Temple.  —  For  the  highest  expression  of  Greek 
art  we  must  look  to  the  temple.  During  the  historical  period 
we  find  in  Greece  no  royal  palaces,  like  those  in  Assyria  or 
Egypt,  or  even  like  those  previously  built  on  Greek  soil  at 
Tiryns  and  Mycenae.  The  reverence  for  royalty  passed  away 
with  the  growth  of  political  freedom ;  and  so  the  architectural 
skill  and  taste  of  the  Greeks  were  devoted  almost  entirely  to 
the  service  of  the  gods.  In  every  city  the  temple  was  the 
most  beautiful  and  conspicuous  object. 

In  its  design  the  Greek  temple  was  a  simple  roof  supported 
by  columns  and  covering  a  space  inclosed  by  four  walls.  It 
is  supposed  that  this  design  grew  out  of  the  form  of  a  dwell- 
ing house,  made  of  wood,  with  a  front  porch.  At  first  the 
building  had  two  columns  in  front  (m  antis),  and  then  four 
columns  (pro' style)  ]  afterward  it  had  also  four  columns  in 
the  rear  (amphip'i'ostyle),  and  finally  the  whole  building  was 


CULTURE   OF   THE   EARLY   GREEK  STATES 


155 


•  •  •  • 


1,  In  antis  ;  2,  prostyle 


Types  of  the  Greek  Temple 

3,  aniphiprostyle  ;  4,  peristyle  (the  Parthenon) 
0,  opisthodomus ;   S,  statue 


(West) 


N,  naos  ; 


surrounded  entirely  by  a  colonnade  (per'istyle).  The  inclosed 
space  in  the  largest  temples  generally  consisted  of  a  principal 
part  (na'os  or  cello),  in  which  was  placed  the  statue  of  the  deity, 
and  a  rear  part  (opisthod'oynus),  which  contained  the  treasures 
of  the  temple.  The  architectural  style  of  the  building  was 
indicated  chiefly  by  the  columns  and  capitals  which  supported 
the  roof. 

The  Doric  Style.  —  The  earliest  Greek  style  of  architecture 
was  the  Doric,  which  is  supposed  to  have  had  its  origin  among 
the  Dorian  people  of  the 
Peloponnesus.  One  of  the 
best  specimens  of  this 
order  was  the  temple  of 
Athena  on  the  island  of 
^gi'na.  By  looking  at 
the  parts  of  this  building 
we  may  get  an  idea  of  the 
structural  features  of  the 
Doric  style.  The  building 
rests  upon  a  stone  founda- 
tion (crepido'ma),  built  in 
the  form  of  steps,  supporting  the  column.  The  column  consists 
of  two  parts  :  first,  the  shaft,  grooved  with  perpendicular  flut- 
ings  and  having  a  perceptible  swelling  (en'tasis)  in  the  center ; 
and  second,  the  capital,  made  up  of  a  circular  band  (echi'nus) 
surmounted  by  a  square  block  (ab'acus).  Upon  the  column 
morey's  greek  hist.  — 10 


[iiMiiMiii-ijriri^^ 


West  Front  of  Temple  at  ^gina 


156 


BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 


was  placed  the  entablature,  which  consisted 
of  three  parts  :  first,  the  architrave,  presenting 
a  plain  surface  of  stone,  above  which  was  a 
slight  projection  (tce'nia)-^  then  the  frieze, 
made  up  of  a  succession  of  projecting  and 
fluted  blocks  (tri'gliphs)  with  intervening 
spaces  {meVopes) ;  and,  finally,  the  projecting 
cornice,  upon  which  the  roof  was  supported. 
Looking  at  the  front,  or  facade,  of  the  build- 
ing, we  see  the  triangular  space,  or  gable,  be- 
tween the  cornice  and  the  roof,  called  the 
pediment ;  this  was  often  filled  with  the  finest 
specimens  of  the  sculptor's  art.  The  Doric 
was  the  simplest  of  the  Greek  styles.  It  gave 
the  impression  of  strength  and  repose  and 
was  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as 
masculine  in  its  character. 

The  Ionic  Style.  —  The  more 
refined  and  feminine  style  was 
the  Ionic,  which  may  perhaps 
have  had  its  origin  in  Ionia. 
This  was  not  used  to  a  great 
extent  in  European  Greece  until 
the  next  period.  The  most  im- 
portant example  during  this 
period  was  the  renowned  temple  of  Artemis 
(Diana)  at  Ephesus.  We  may  see  the  distin- 
guishing features  of  this  order  by  comparing  it 
with  the  Doric.  The  Ionic  column  has  a  distinct 
base  with  three  circular  bands.  The  shaft  is 
more  slender  than  the  Doric.  The  capital  is 
adorned  with  a  spiral  roll,  or  volute,  which  forms 
a  marked  feature  of  this  style.  The  architrave 
is  divided  into  three  layers  of  stone;  and  the 
frieze  is  not  separated  into  triglyphs  and  metopes 
like  the  Doric,  but  consists  of  a  continuous  sur- 


Greek  Doric 
Style 

1,  shaft ;  2,  echinus  ; 
3,  abacus  ;  4,  ar- 
chitrave ;  5,  taenia ; 
6,  frieze ;  7,  cor- 
nice 


Greek  Ionic 
Style 


CULTURE   OF   THE   EARLY   GREEK   STATES 


157 


face,  sometimes  decorated  with  ornamental  de- 
signs. The  Doric  and  Ionic  styles  represent  the 
chief  phases  of  early  Greek  architecture  ^  and 
suggest  respectively  the  stronger  and  the  more 
refined  elements  of  the  Greek  character. 

Architectural  Decoration.  —  One  of  the  essential 
features  of  Greek  art  is  seen  in  the  method  used 
in  architectural  decoration.  Indeed,  the  differ- 
ence between  true  art  and  false  art  can  be  most 
quickly  detected  in  the  use  of  decorative  features. 
The  Greeks  used  color  upon  their  buildings ;  but 
the  color  was  employed  not  to  cover  up  or  con- 
ceal, but  to  emphasize  the  structural  features. 
They  used  ornamental  designs;  but  these  were 
employed  not  to  draw  attention  to  themselves, 
but  to  make  more  beautiful  the  whole  building. 
They  also  adorned  their  buildings  with  sculptured 
figures ;  these,  however,  were  not  obtrusive  and 

pretentious,  but 


'ILiy^ULJB 


Grp:ek  Corin- 
thian Style 


Greek  Decoration 

1,  fret ;    2,  egg  and  dart ;    3,  bead  and  fillet ; 
4,  honeysuckle 


subordinate  to 
the  main  struc- 
ture, contributing  to  the  gen- 
eral effect,  and  helping  to 
interpret  its  real  meaning. 
The  Greeks  employed  a  great 
variety  of  ornamental  designs, 
such  as  the  fret,  the  egg  and 
dart,  the  bead  and  fillet,  and 
the  honeysuckle.  The  way  in 
which  these  designs  were  em- 
ployed may  be  seen  in  the  ac- 
companying illustration.  Here 
is  no  pretense  and  no  decep- 


1  The  so-called  Corinthian  order,  which  was  of  later  development,  "hardly 
deserves  to  be  called  a  distinct  order.  Its  only  peculiar  feature  is  the  capital ; 
otherwise  it  agrees  with  the  Ionic  order  "  (Tarbell). 


158  BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 

tion.     The  Greeks  believed  that  perfect  art  is  unpretentious 
and  does  not  tell  a  lie. 

Early  Greek  Sculpture.  —  The  art  of  sculpture  did  not  make 
as  rapid  progress  in  this  period  as  did  architecture.  In  fact, 
most  of  the  examples  which  are  left  to  us  are  crude  and  archaic. 
We  can  see  the  first  feeble  efforts  to  break  away  from  the  stiff 
and  conventional  forms  of  the  East,  and  to  give  to  stone  the 
features  of  life.  The  influence  of  religion  is  seen  in  the  early 
attempts  to  represent  the  gods  in  the  form  of  men ;  but  these 
attempts  are  suggestive  of  idols  rather  than  statues.  The  credit 
of  giving  to  statues  a  more  lifelike  appearance  is  ascribed  to 
the  mythical  Daed'alus,  who  was  said  to  be  a  native  of  Athens. 
Schools  of  sculpture  grew  up  in  the  cities  of  Asiatic  Greece, 
Samos,  and  Chios ;  in  European  Greece,  at  Argos,  ^gina,  and 
Athens;  and  in  Sicily,  especially  at  Selinus.  We  have  pre- 
served to  us  some  of  the  sculptured  reliefs  from  the  metopes 
of  the  temple  at  Selinus.  These  consist  of  small  groups  of 
figures  representing  mythological  scenes,  and  are  carved  in  a 
very  rude  fashion.  But  they  are  interesting,  as  they  show  the 
early  way  in  which  sculpture  was  used  for  temple  decoration. 
Among  the  strongest  influences  which  led  to  the  improvement 
of  sculpture  during  this  time  were  the  encouragement  given  to 
physical  training  and  the  custom  of  erecting  at  Olympia  statues 
to  successful  athletes.  But  it  is  not  until  the  close  of  this 
period  that  we  see  the  sculpture  beginning  to  acquire  some  of 
those  artistic  qualities  which  we  have  noticed  in  the  archi- 
tecture. 

III.   The  Greek  Language  and  Early  Literature 

The  Greek  Language.  —  Another  strong  bond  which  united  the 
various  branches  of  the  Greek  people  was  their  language. 
This  gave  them  a  common  means  of  communication,  and  like 
their  religion  it  preserved  among  them  the  feeling  of  kinship. 
It  also  separated  them  from  the  outside  "barbarian"  world, 
and  contributed  to  the  growth  of  a  distinct  Hellenic  culture. 


CULTURE   OF  THE   EARLY   GREEK   STATES  159 

Although  a  branch  of  the  great  Aryan  or  Indo-European  family, 
the  Greek  early  surpassed  the  other  languages  of  this  group  as 
an  instrument  of  thought  and  expression.  Nothing,  not  even 
the  Greek  religion  or  the  Greek  art,  reflects  more  strongly  the 
characteristic  features. of  the  Greek  mind  —  its  freedom,  its 
versatility,  its  refinement,  its  wonderful  aesthetic  and  intel- 
lectual resources.  By  means  of  this  remarkable  language  the 
Greeks  produced  a  literature  which  has  given  them  a  high 
place  among  the  most  civilized  peoples  of  the  world.  We  can 
here  take  only  a  hasty  glance  at  the  growth  of  the  literature 
during  this  formative  period. 

Decline  of  Epic  Poetry.  —  At  the  beginning  of  the  period  the 
Greeks  already  possessed  the  "  poems  of  Homer."  These  epics 
were  the  richest  inheritance  that  they  had  received  from  the 
prehistoric  age  —  of  greater  value  than  all  the  treasures  of 
Mycenae.  These  poems  pictured  in  matchless  verse  the  glories 
of  the  past,  and  recounted  the  deeds  of  gods  and  heroes.  The 
epic  was  thus  the  poetry  of  action,  and  as  such  the  Homeric 
epic  could  not  be  equaled.  It  was  feebly  imitated  by  a  class 
of  poets  ^called  the  Homer 'idae,  who  still  sang  of  the  legends  of 
Troy  and  of  mythical  heroes.  A  new  and  lower  kind  of  epic 
was  introduced  by  He'siod,  who  is  said  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Boeotia.  This  kind  of  epic  was  less  heroic  and  more  didactic 
in  its  character;  that  is,  written  for  purposes  of  instruction. 
The  "  Theog'ony  "  of  Hesiod  is  a  sort  of  theological  treatise 
containing  a  description  of  the  gods  and  the  religious  faith  of 
the  ancient  Greeks.  The  "  Works  and  Days  "  is  a  poem  of 
common  life,  describing  the  labors  of  the  farmer  and  inter- 
spersed with  wholesome  moral  advice. 

Transition  to  Lyric  Poetry.  —  With  the  decline  of  the  epic,  or 
the  poetry  of  action,  there  arose  a  new  kind  of  poetry  more 
closely  related  to  human  thoughts  and  feelings.  This  is  shown 
in  what  are  called  the  elegiac,  the  iambic,  and  finally  the  lyric 
verse.  The  elegiac  and  the  iambic  poetry,  like  the  older  epic, 
made  their  first  appearance  among  the  lonians.  The  elegy 
was  composed  of  alternating  lines  of  different  lengths,  the  one 


160 


BEGINNINGS   OF   GREECE 


of  six  feet  (hexameter),  the  next  of  five  feet  (pentameter).  It 
was  accompanied  by  the  music  of  the  flute,  and  was  serious  in 
its  character,  sometimes  used  to  express  feelings  of  sadness, 
and  sometimes  patriotic  in  its  appeals.  The  chief  elegiac 
poets  were  Calli'nus  of  Ephesus,  and  Tyrtse'us  of  Athens.  It 
is  said  that  Tyrtseus  was  sent  to  Sparta  during  the  Messenian 
wars  to  inspire  the  Spartan  soldiers  with  a  heroic  spirit.  The 
iambic  poetry,  differing  from  the  elegy,  was  the  poetry  of  wit 
and  satire,  and  devoted  to  raillery  and  invective.  Its  chief 
representative  was  Archil 'ochus,  a  native  of  the  island  of 
Paros.  These  two  forms  of  poetry  —  the  elegiac  and  the  iam- 
bic—  prepared  the  way  for  the  higher  and  more  cultivated 
form  of  the  lyric. 

The  ^olian  Lyric  Poetry.  —  The   influence   of  music   upon 
poetry  may  be  seen  in  the  growth  of  the  lyre,  an  instrument 

which  the  Greeks  regarded  as 
especially  their  own.  To  the 
earlier  four-stringed  lyre,  or 
cithara,  which  had  formerly 
been  used  to  accompany  the 
voice,  other  strings  were  added 
by  Terpan'der  of  Lesbos,  giv- 
ing to  it  the  compass  of  the 
octave.  This  was  considered 
as  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  music.  It  not  only  increased 
the  capacity  of  the  instrument,  but  gave  a  new  inspiration  to 
the  singer.  The  new  poetry  which  arose  received  its  name 
from  the  lyre,  and  it  made  its  first  appearance  on  the  ^olian 
island  of  Lesbos,  the  home  of  Terpander.  The  chief  poets  of 
^olia  were  Alcae'us,  who  sang  of  patriotism  and  war;  Sappho, 
who  sang  of  love ;  and  Ana'creon,  who  sang  of  the  pleasures 
of  life.  Of  these  Sappho  is  preeminent.  To  the  Greeks  she 
was  "the  poetess,"  as  Homer  was  "the  poet."  Of  the  few 
fragments  which  remain  to  us,  modern  critics  can  hardly  ex- 
press their  admiration.  Says  one,  "  Of  all  the  illustrious  artists 
of  all  literature,  Sappho  is  the  one  whose  every  word  has  a 


Greek  Lyres 


CULTURE   OF   THE   EARLY   GREEK  STATES  161 

peculiar  and  unmistakable  perfume,  a  seal  of  absolute  perfec- 
tion and  inimitable  grace"  (Symonds). 

The  Dorian  Lyric  Poetry.  —  Another  form  of  lyric  poetry  was 
cultivated  by  the  Dorians.  Their  poems  were  not  so  personal 
as  the  ^olian  songs,  which  were  intended  for  a  single  voice ; 
they  were  more  public  in  their  nature,  and  intended  to  be  sung 
by  a  number  of  voices.  They  comprised  hymns,  or  choruses, 
for  the  public  worship  of  the  gods,  and  songs  to  be  sung  at 
public  festivals.  The  chorus,  accompanied  by  dances  or  pro- 
cessional marches,  was  not  a  new  thing  in  Greece.  But  it  came 
to  have  a  new  character,  and  w£Cs  reduced  to  a  regular  form 
under  the  influence  of  three  poets  —  Alcman,  Stesich'orus,  and 
Ari'on.  Alcman  regulated  the  rhythmic  movement  of  the  per- 
sons singing  the  chorus.  The  movement  of  the  singers  from 
right  to  left  before  the  altar,  and  the  part  of  the  hymn,  or 
ode,  sung  during  this  movement,  were  called  the  "  strophe " ; 
the  movement  from  left  to  right,  and  the  corresponding  part 
of  the  hymn,  were  called  the  "  antis'trophe."  Stesichorus  added 
an  after-part,  sung  after  these  movements  were  completed,  by 
the  chorus  when  standing  still,  and  called  the  "  ep'ode."  Arion 
is  said  to  have  given  a  special  form  to  the  chorus  in  the  wor- 
ship of  Dionysus,  the  wine  god.  The  chorus  of  fifty  singers 
was  arranged  about  the  altar  in  the  form  of  a  circle,  and  the 
hymns  were  accompanied  with  dancing,  gestures,  and  mimetic 
features.  This  choral  hymn  was  known  as  the  ^'  dith'yramb," 
and  from  it  sprang  the  later  drama. 

IV.   Early  Greek  Philosophy 

The  Beginnings  of  Philosophy.  —  Another  phase  of  Greek  cul- 
ture, quite  as  important,  perhaps,  as  those  already  mentioned, 
is  seen  in  the  growth  of  philosophical  thought.  We  begin  to 
see  something  like  philosophy  in  the  sayings  of  the  "  Seven 
Wise  Men,"  among  whom  were  numbered  Tha'les  and  Solon. 
These  men  put  into  pithy  form  practical  maxims  for  the 
guidance  of  life.     Some  of  these  maxims  were  inscribed  upon 


162  BEGINNINGS  OF   GREECE 

the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi ;  for  example,  "  Know  thyself." 
"Do  nothing  in  excess."  Other  sayings  ascribed  to  the  wise 
men  were  these:  "The  greatest  blessing  is  the  power  to  do 
good."  "  Pardon  is  better  than  punishment."  "  The  most 
difficult  things  are  to  keep  a  secret,  to  forgive  injuries,  and  to 
improve  one's  time."  Besides  these  words  of  wise  men,  the 
growth  of  science  also  prepared  the  way  for  philosophy. 
Mathematics  and  astronomy  were  among  the  earliest  of 
these  sciences.  When  men  began  to  learn  that  the  move- 
ment of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  controlled  by  certain  fixed 
laws,  and  not  by  the  whim  of  the  gods,  they  began  to  lose 
faith  in  the  old  mythology,  and  to  seek  for  some  explanation 
of  things  more  in  accordance  with  reason.  Philosophy  thus 
tended  to  purify  the  old  religion. 

The  Early  Ionic  Philosophy.  —  Like  other  forms  of  Greek  cul- 
ture, philosoj)hy  had  its  origin  in  the  Ionian  cities  of  Asia 
Minor.  Here  the  Greeks  came  into  contact  with  the  scien- 
tific notions  of  the  Assyrians  and  Egyptians,  which  fur- 
nished a  kind  of  starting  point  for  Greek  philosophy.  The 
Ionic  philosophers  w^ere  students  of  physical  science,  of  the 
laws  of  the  material  world ;  hence  their  philosophy  was  what 
might  be  called  a  physical,  or  materialistic,  philosophy.  As 
they  studied  the  various  and  changing  forms  of  matter,  they 
were  led  to  believe  that  there  must  be  some  primitive  form  of 
matter  from  which  all  other  forms  are  derived.  There  are 
three  men  who  mark  the  progress  of  this  kind  of  thinking  — 
Thales,  Anaxim'ines,  and  Anaximan'der. 

Thales  was  a  mathematician  and  astronomer.  He  traveled 
in  many  lands,  and  is  said  to  have  taught  the  Egyptians  how 
to  measure  the  height  of  their  pyramids  by  means  of  the 
shadows.  As  he  studied  the  world,  and  saw  that  it  is  every- 
where encircled  by  the  ocean,  that  the  land  arises  from  the 
abyss  of  the  sea,  that  everything  is  tinctured  with  moisture, 
that  even  the  seeds  grow  only  under  its  influence,  he  was  led 
to  believe  that  ivater,  in  some  form  or  other,  is  the  primitive 
matter  from  which  everything  else  proceeds. 


CULTURE   OF   THE   EARLY   GREEK   STATES  163 

Anaximines,  however,  saw  that  the  world,  with  its  lands  and 
waters  alike,  is  surrounded  by  the  all-embracing  air ;  that  even 
where  there  is  no  water  there  is  air ;  that  air  is  the  breath  of 
life,  and  that  without  it  all  beings  cease  to  exist.  He,  there- 
fore, concluded  that  air  is  the  primitive  substance. 

But  Anaximander  saw  that  all  the  kinds  of  matter  which  we 
know  anything  about  are  continually  changing  in  their  form 
and  qualities  ;  that  water,  for  example,  is  condensed  from  vapor, 
and  that  vapor  must  have  come  from  something  more  primitive 
—  in  fact,  that  everything  must  have  come  from  some  unknown 
original  substance  different  from  anything  which  we  see.  This 
primitive  chaotic  matter,  from  which  he  believed  everything 
was  evolved,  he  called  the  infinite  substance. 

The  Philosophy  of  Pythagoras.  —  A  new  school  of  philosophy 
was  founded  by  Pythag'oras,  who  w^as  a  native  of  Samos,  an 
Ionian  city  of  Asia  Minor.  He  is  said  to  have  traveled  in 
Egypt,  and  perhaps  in  Phoenicia  and  in  Babylon,  and  to  have 
absorbed  the  wisdom  of  these  countries.  At  any  rate,  he  was 
called  the  most  learned  man  of  his  time.  He  finally  settled 
at  Croton  in  southern  Italy,  where  his  philosophy  exercised  a 
great  influence  in  Magna  Graecia.  .  Pythagoras  was  first  of  all 
a  mathematician  ;  and  he  looked  at  everything  through  mathe- 
matical eyes.  He  saw  that  everything  possesses  number, 
either  one  or  many  ;  and  hence  he  reasoned  that  number  is 
the  principle  of  everything.  We  can  not  of  course  indicate  the 
method  of  his  reasoning,  or  the  various  ways  in  which  he  ap- 
plied his  principles.  It  is  enough  for  us  at  present  to  remem- 
ber that  he  was  the  mathematical  philosopher.  He  was  also 
a  religious  and  moral  teacher  and  organized  a  secret  frater- 
nity, the  purpose  of  which  was  to  cultivate  the  highest  virtue 
among  its  members. 

The  Eleatic  Philosophy.  —  Another  school  of  philosophy  arose 
in  Elea  (Velia),  on  the  western  coast  of  Italy,  called  the  Ele- 
atic school.  This  was  also  connected,  like  the  others,  with  Ionia 
in  Asia  Minor ;  since  its  founder,  whose  name  was  Xenoph'- 
anes,  originally  came  from  the  Ionian  city  of  Colophon.     This 


164  BEGINNINGS   OF  GREECE 

philosopher  embodied  his  ideas  in  a  poem  "  On  Kature."  As 
he  looked  at  the  world,  he  saw  that  all  things  are  parts  of  one 
complete  and  harmonious  whole;  and  hence  to  ex2)ress  his 
idea  in  a  brief  form  he  used  this  phrase,  "  The  All  is  One." 
He  also  affirmed  that  the  one  universal  principle  which  com- 
prehends and  controls  everything  else,  is  God.  Aristotle  says 
that  "  he  looked  up  to  heaven  and  pronounced  the  One  to  be 
God."  This  idea  was  entirely  opposed  to  the  old  mythological 
idea  of  the  gods  contained  in  Homer  and  Hesiod,  and  shows 
that  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks  was  tending  to  elevate  and 
purify  the  old  religious  ideas. 

We  can  thus  see,  in  the  Greek  art  and  literature  and  phi- 
losophy, evidences  of  the  growing  refinement,  versatility,  and 
power  of  the  Greek  mind,  which  was  gradually  expressing  it- 
self in  a  distinctive  Hellenic  culture,  different  from  that  of 
any  other  ancient  people. 

. SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Mahaffy,  Survey,  Ch.  3,  "First  Two  Centuries  of  Historic  Develop- 
ment" (10). 1 

Cox,  Ch.  7,  "Intellectual  Education  of  the  Greeks  "  (10). 

Smith,  Ch.  13,  "  History  of  Literature  ";  Ch.  13,"  History  of  Art "  (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  24,  "Growth  of  Greek  Philosophy,  Literature  and 
Art  in  Asia  Minor"  (11). 

Curtius,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  IL,  Ch.  4,  "  The  Unity  of  Greece"  (11). 

Symonds,  Greek  Poets,  Ch.  1,  "Periods  of  Greek  Literature"  (23). 

Zeller,  First  Period,  Parti.,  "The  Three  Earliest  Schools"  (24). 

Collignon,  Bk.  L,  "Origin  of  Greek  Art"  (19). 

Tarbell,  Ch.  3,  "Greek  Architecture"  (19). 

SPECIAL   STUDY 

The  Greek  Festivals  and  Games.  —  Smith,  Ch.  6  (10)  ;  Cox,  pp. 
47-50  (10)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  L,  Ch.  19  (11)  ;  Guhl  and  Koner,  pp.  199-231 
(22)  ;  Gulick,  pp.  91-105,  306-308  (22)  ;  Bliimner,  Chs.  8,  11  (22) ; 
Harper's  Class.  Diet,  (see  names  of  different  games  and  festivals). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 


^>Kc 


PEEIOD  III.     THE  PEESIAN  WAES;   GEOWINa  POWEE  OF 
ATHENS     (500-479   B.C.) 


CHAPTER   XIII 

THE  ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE   EAST  UPON  THE   WEST 

I.   The  Lydian  Conquest  of  Asia  Minor 

Character  of  the  New  Period.  —  We  now  approach  the  period 
which  is,  in  many  respects,  the  most  eventful  and  heroic  in 
the  whole  course  of  Greek  history.  The  Greeks  had  already 
become  an  active,  enterprising,  and  cultivated  people.  Their 
influence  was  beginning  to  be  felt  on  nearly  every  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean  —  not  only  in  European  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
but  also  on  the  Propontis  and  the  Euxine,  in  Italy  and  Sicily, 
and  even  on  the  coasts  of  Africa,  Gaul,  and  Spain.  They  had 
everywhere  broken  down  their  old  monarchies,  and  had  estab- 
lished freer  institutions.  They  were  also  laying  the  foun- 
dations of  a  broader  and  more  liberal  culture.  They  had,  in 
short,  come  to  be  the  representatives  of  a  new  and  higher  civi- 
lization. But  now  came  a  great  crisis  in  their  history,  when 
they  were  called  upon  to  defend  their  very  existence.  Their 
cities,  their  colonies,  their  commerce,  their  free  institutions, 
and  their  new  culture,  were  all  threatened  with  destruction 

165 


r»no<:>iiinssi^E  iM^r*  jsto.  5. 


160 


ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE  EAST  UPON  THE  WEST      167 

by  the  great  powers  of  the  East.  During  this  time  we  shall 
see  a  struggle  between  the  East  and  the  West  which  was  to 
decide  whether  Greek  civilization  was  to  survive,  or  whether 
Europe  was  to  fall  under  Asiatic  dominion.  As  we  follow 
this  conflict  we  shall  see  not  only  the  triumph  of  Europe  over 
Asia,  but  also  how  Athens  came  to  be  the  principal  center  of 
Greek  life  and  influence. 

Position  of  the  Asiatic  Cities.  —  The  chief  point  of  contact 
between  the  East  and  the  West  was  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
which  was  fringed  with  Greek  cities.  These  cities  formed 
the  eastern  frontier  of  the  Hellenic  world.  They  were  in 
many  respects  the  pioneers  of  Greek  civilization.  They  had 
thus  far  taken  the  lead  in  the  cultivation  of  poetry,  art,  and 
philosophy.  But,  like  the  cities  of  Greece,  they  were  politi- 
cally independent  of  one  another.  While  they  had  a  common 
religion  and  a  common  culture,  they  were  not  inclined  to  bind 
themselves  together  in  a  common  state,  and  hence  they  were 
comparatively  weak  in  the  presence  of  their  Oriental  neigh- 
bors. 

Lydia  and  the  Conquest  of  the  Greek  Cities  (560  B.C.).  —  Of 
the  four  great  Oriental  powers  which  were  flourishing  in  the 
sixth  century,  — namely,  Lydia,  Media,  Babylonia,  and  Egypt,  — 
Lydia  was  in  the  closest  proximity  to  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  kings  of  Lydia  were  inspired  with  the  Oriental 
passion  for  conquest.  Under  their  king  Gyges,  the  Lydians 
subdued  Magnesia  and  Colophon;  and  under  Alyat'tes  they 
captured  Smyrna  and  formed  alliances  with  Ephesus  and 
Miletus  (see  map,  page  80).  But  it  was  their  more  renowned 
king,  Croesus,  who  completed  the  conquest  of  this  part  of  the 
Greek  world.  Croesus  adopted,  however,  a  very  liberal  policy 
toward  his  new  subjects.  While  he  compelled  them  to  pay 
tribute,  he  granted  them  a  certain  amount  of  local  freedom, 
and  did  not  force  them  to  raise  troops  for  his  army.  The 
prosperity  of  the  Greek  cities  was  thus  not  seriously  affected 
by  the  Lydian  conquest ;  on  the  contrary,  they  found  in  Lydia 
a  protector  rather  than  an  oppressor. 


168  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

II.   The  Rise  and  Conquests  of  Persia 

Rise  of  Persia  under  Cyrus  (558-529  B.C.).  —  But  a  power 
greater  than  Lydia  soon  appeared  and  absorbed  all  the  countries 
of  western  Asia.  This  power  was  Persia.  It  was  originally  a 
small  province  situated  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  subject  to  the 
Median  empire.  About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  b.c.  its 
prince,  whom  we  know  as  Cyrus  the  Great,  revolted  from  Media, 
and  became  the  founder  of  a  new  world  empire.  Many  stories 
are  told  about  the  birth  and  early  life  of  this  great  man ;  but 
they  are  largely  mythical,  and  need  not  be  rehearsed.  His  chief 
significance  for  us  is  the  fact  that  he  created  the  most  powerful 
empire  that  the  world  had  yet  seen,  and  established  a  policy 
which  was  destined  to  bring  Asia  into  conflict  with  Europe. 

Conquest  of  Lydia  and  the  Asiatic  Greeks.  —  With  the  over- 
throw of  the  Median  empire,  Cyrus  proceeded  to  extend  his 
kingdom  to  the  West.  This  required  the  conquest  of  Baby- 
lonia west  of  the  Tigris,  and  of  Lydia  west  of  the  Halys 
River.  Lydia  was  especially  alive  to  the  dangers  of  Persian 
aggression.  Her  energetic  king,  Croesus,  who  had  now  under 
his  control  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  assumed  the  part 
of  defender  of  western  Asia.  He  is  said  to  have  consulted 
the  oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  to  have  received  the  re- 
sponse that  "if  he  crossed  the  Halys,  he  would  destroy  a  great 
empire."  Not  thinking  that  this  might  apply  to  his  own  em- 
pire, as  well  as  to  that  of  Cyrus,  he  crossed  the  river,  and  after 
an  indecisive  battle  retreated  into  his  own  territory.  Without 
delay  Cyrus  invaded  Lydia  and  captured  Sardis.  The  Greeks 
then  offered  to  surrender  on  condition  of  receiving  the  same 
privileges  that  they  had  enjoyed  under  Croesus.  This  was  re- 
fused, and  they  were  rapidly  reduced  to  submission.  Asia 
Minor  now  became  a  part  of  the  Persian  empire.  The  Greek 
cities  were  obliged  to  pay  tribute,  to  furnish  ships  and  soldiers, 
and  to  submit  to  the  control  of  a  Persian  governor. 

Conquests  in  Asia  and  Africa.  —  After  the  conquest  of  Lydia 
and  the  Greek  cities,  Cyrus  turned  his  attention  to  his  next 


ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE  EAST  UPON  THE  WEST   169 

great  rival,  Babylonia.  With  the  fall  of  Babylon  (538  b.c), 
this  empire  also  became  a  part  of  his  dominions.  It  is  to  the 
credit  of  Cyrus  that  he  permitted  the  Jews,  who  had  been  held 
in  captivity  since  the  days  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (see  page  63), 
to  return  to  their  home  in  Jerusalem.  After  the  death  of 
Cyrus  his  son,  Camby'ses  (529-522  b.c),  extended  the  Persian 
authority  over  Phoenicia,  Cyprus,  and  Egypt,  and  even  reduced 
the  Greek  colonies  of  Cyrene  and  Barca  on  the  African  coast.  But 
an  army  sent  into  Ethiopia  perished  in  the  sands  of  the  desert ; 
and  an  expedition  planned  against  Carthage  failed,  because 
the  Phoenician  sailors  refused  to  serve  against  their  kinsfolk. 
The  rule  of  Cambyses  was  oppressive  and  often  cruel,  and  was 
marked  by  frequent  revolts  in  different  parts  of  the  empire. 

Conquests  in  Europe  under  Darius.  —  The  insurrections  which 
attended  the  death  of  Cambyses  were  quelled  by  Dari'us,  who 
was,  next  to  Cyrus,  the  greatest  king  of  Persia.  He  has  a 
special  interest  for  us,  because  he  was  the  first  to  extend  the 
Persian  authority  into  Europe  —  which  fact  paved  the  way  for 
the  subsequent  invasion  of  Greece.  The  purpose  of  Darius 
in  entering  Europe  was,  according  to  Herodotus,  to  send  an 
expedition  against  the  barbarous  Scythians.  So  far  as  the 
Scythians  were  concerned,  this  expedition  proved  a  failure. 
But  on  his  return  to  Asia,  Darius  left  in  Europe  an  army 
which  subdued  Thrace  and  the  Greek  cities  to  the  north 
of  the  Propontis  and  the  ^gean  as  far  west  as  the  river 
Strymon,  and  even  compelled  Macedonia  to  acknowledge  the 
supremacy  of  the  great  king.  The  Persian  empire  was  thus 
extended  into  Europe  to  the  boundary  of  Thessaly,  the 
northern  province  of  Greece. 

Ill,    The  Persian  Empire  and  its  Civilization 

Extent  of  the  Persian  Empire.  —  Before  we  consider  the 
further  attempts  of  Persia  to  encroach  upon  Europe,  we  may 
take  a  brief  survey  of  this  great  empire  and  of  the  civiliza- 
tion which  was  now  brought  face  to  face  with  that  of  Greece. 


FiiOORESsi^nE  m:^p»  :xo.  g. 


ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE  EAST  UPON  THE  WEST      171 


In  its  geographical  extent  Persia  surpassed  all  the  previous 
empires  of  the  East.  It  not  only  covered  all  the  lands 
hitherto  occupied  by  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Media,  Lydia,  and 
Egypt,  but  added  to  them  other  territory  not  included  in  these 
older  empires.  It  extended  from  the  Indus  River  to  the 
^Egean  Sea,  a  distance  of  about  three  thousand  miles.  It  com- 
prised, in  fact,  the  whole  civilized  world  except  India  and 
China  in  the  Far  East,  and  Greece  and  Carthage  in  the  West. 
Political  Organization  of  the  Empire.  —  The  form  of  govern- 
ment established  over  this  vast  domain  was  patterned  after 
that  of  the  Assyrians,  but  strength- 
ened and  perfected  by  the  genius 
of  Darius.  For  purposes  of  admin- 
istration the  territory  was  divided 
into  a  number  of  provinces,  or 
satrapies,  each  under  a  provincial 
governor,  or  satrap,  appointed  by 
the  king.  The  provinces  were 
subject  to  the  satraps,  and  the 
satraps  were  subject  to  the  king. 
The  chief  duty  of  the  provincial 
subjects  was  to  furnish  men  for 
the  royal  army,  ships  for  the  royal 
navy,  and  money  for  the  royal 
treasury.  The  provinces  were 
joined  to  the  capital,  Susa,  by 
military  roads,  the  most  important 
of  which  was  the  great  royal  road 
from  Susa  to  Sardis,  fifteen  hun- 
dred miles  long.  The  person  of 
the  king  was  exalted  above  that 
of  other  men.  He  sat  upon  a 
throne  made  of  gold,  silver,  and 
ivory.  His  garments  were  of  richest  silk.  To  serve  him  was 
the  highest  mark  of  nobility.  To  minister  to  his  comfort, 
one  dignitary  was  chosen  to  carry  the  royal  parasol,   another 


The  Persian  King 


172  THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 

the  royal  fan,  while  other  officers  were  appointed  to  perform 
other  equally  honorable  duties. 

The  chief  support  of  the  royal  authority  was  the  army 
drawn  from  the  different  provinces.  When  called  together, 
it  was  marshaled  by  nations,  each  with  its  own  costume  and 
subject  to  royal  officers.  The  footmen  were  armed  with  the 
sword,  the  spear,  and  their  favorite  weapon,  the  bow,  in  the 
use  of  which  they  were  expert.  The  cavalry  was  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  the  army,  and  was  very  effective  when  fighting 
upon  an  open  plain.  The  choicest  part  of  the  Persian  army 
were  the  "  Ten  Thousand  Immortals,"  so  called  because  their 
numbers  were  perpetually  maintained.  On  the  sea  the  Per- 
sians were  able  to  gather  from  their  subjects  a  large  number 
of  ships,  mostly  triremes  armed  with  iron  prows.  With  such 
an  army  and  navy  the  Persians  had  already  conquered  Asia, 
and  hoped  to  conquer  Greece. 

Persian  Art  and  Literature.  —  As  the  Persians  were  chiefly 
a  conquering  and  ruling  people,  they  were  not  distinguished 
for  their  intellectual  achievements.  Whatever  art  they  pos- 
sessed was  mostly  a  mere  reproduction  of  that  of  Assyria  and 
Babylon.  Their  architecture  and  sculpture  showed  no  evidences 
of  marked  originality.  While  using  an  Aryan  speech,  the  Per- 
sians adopted  for  writing  the  wedge-shaped  characters  of  their 
predecessors.  They  made  no  contributions  to  science ;  and  for 
many  generations  they  possessed  no  literature  worthy  of  notice 
except  the  "  Aves'ta,"  which  was  the  Persian  Bible. 

Persian  Religion  and  Morality.  —  The  most  distinctive  feature 
of  the  Persian  civilization  was  its  religion.  The.  religion  of 
Persia  was  doubtless  an  outgrowth  of  a  lower  polytheistic 
nature  worship ;  but  it  seems  to  have  reached  its  highest  de- 
velopment under  the  influence  of  Zoroas'ter.  This  religious 
reformer  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  Bactria  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  century  b.c.  Some  scholars  are  inclined  to 
believe  that  his  name  stands  merely  for  a  mythical  person; 
while  others  strongly  assert  that  "  we  must  accept  the  histori- 
cal reality  of  Zoroaster  "  (Sayce).     He  considered  the  powers  of 


ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE   EAST  UPON  THE  WEST      173 

nature  as  separated  into  the  powers  of  light  and  the  powers  of 
darkness  —  the  one  under  the  control  of  the  great  god  of  light 
(Ormuzd),  who  is  the  creator  of  all  that  is  good  ;  and  the  other 
under  the  control  of  the  god  of  darkness  (Ah'riman),  who  is  the 
father  of  all  that  is  evil.  This  is  a  system  of  religion  which 
we  call  Dualism.  The  whole  universe  is  looked  upon  as  a 
struggle  between  light  and  darkness,  between  the  good  and  the 
evil,  in  other  words,  between  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman.  Human 
life  in  the  same  way  is  regarded  as  a  perpetual  struggle  between 
good  and  evil ;  and  the  duty  of  man  is  to  cleave  to  that  which 
is  good  and  to  shun  that  which  is  evil.  Morality  was  closely 
related  to  religion.  The  Persians  believed  in  truthfulness  as  a 
high  moral  virtue,  and  despised  lying  and  deceit.  The  higher 
elements  of  the  Persian  religion  were  corrupted  under  the  in- 
fluence of  a  priestly  class,  the  Magi,  who  were  inclined  to 
worship  the  symbol  of  fire  in  place  of  the  god  of  light,  and  to 
regard  the  performance  of  religious  rites  and  ceremonies  as  the 
chief  duty  of  life. 

Persia  and  Greece. — We  should,  of  course,  recognize  the 
services  which  Persia  performed  by  uniting  the  countries 
of  the  East  under  a  higher  political  system,  and  by  resisting 
the  barbarous  Scythians  of  the  north.  But  we  can  not  fail  to 
see  the  striking  contrast  between  this  civilization  and  that  of 
Greece.  In  Greece  we  have  seen  the  decline  of  monarchy  and 
the  establishment  of  free  institutions;  in  Persia  we  see  the 
culmination  of  monarchy  in  the  most  highly  centralized  form 
of  despotism.  In  Greece  we  have  seen  the  growth  of  a  new 
culture  based  upon  the  dignity  of  man,  the  supremacy  of  reason, 
and  the  love  of  beauty ;  in  Persia  we  see  the  decaying  stages 
of  an  old  culture,  which  had  been  inherited  from  the  older 
monarchies  of  the  East,  which  had  been  developed  under  the 
influence  of  a  priestly  class,  and  which  was  strongly  marked  by 
Oriental  features,  extravagance,  luxury,  and  effeminacy.  If 
we  take  a  larger  view,  we  may  see  in  Persia  and  the  East  the 
lower  stages  of  human  progress  from  which  arose  a  higher 
development  in  Greece  and  the  West. 


174 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


IV.    The  Revolt  of  the  Ionian  Cities 

Causes  of  the  Ionian  Revolt.  —  The  great  conflict  between  the 
East  represented  by  Persia,  and  the  West  represented  by 
Greece,  began  with  the  revolt  of  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia 
Minor,     The  cities  of  Ionia  were  at  this  time  under  the  control 

of  the  Persian  satrap  Ar- 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


Q  TENEDOS 


^ 


LESBOS '.^^^ 


Phoc«ea«<V 


tapher'nes,  whose  capital 
was  at  Sardis.  The  cities 
were  in  a  continual  state 
of  discontent,  being  ruled 
by  tyrants  supported  by 
the  Persian  governor.  The 
open  revolt  against  Persia 
began  at  the  city  of  Mile- 
tus, and  its  leading  spirit 
was  the  tyrant  of  that 
city,  Aristag'oras.  Hav- 
ing failed  in  an  expedition 
against  Naxos  (an  island 
of  the  Cyclades),  and 
fearing  that  he  might  be 
deprived  of  his  power, 
Aristagoras  assumed  the 
championship  of  the  Asi- 
atic Greeks  and  stirred  up 
a  rebellion  against  the  Persian  authority.  He  appealed  to  the 
democratic  spirit  of  the  Greeks.  He  even  resigned  his  own 
power  as  tyrant,  and  assumed  the  position  of  leader  of  the  people. 
The  people  were  everywhere  inflamed  with  the  desire  of  lib- 
erty. Their  tyrants  were  seized ;  the  Persian  authority  was 
defied,  and  a  democratic  form  of  government  was  set  up  every- 
where in  Ionia.  In  this  way  began  that  important  event  in 
Greek  history  known  as  the  "  Ionian  Revolt  "  (500  b.c). 

Athens  and  the  Ionian  Cities.  —  It  is  important  to  notice  the 
relation  of  Athens  to  this  revolt,  on  account  of  the  prominent 


\ 


^^     p-v->~r.ti-'^/  4^:f  Ni 


Seat  of  the  Ionian  Revolt 


ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE  EAST  UPON  THE   WEST      175 

position  which  she  afterward  assumed  in  resisting  the  Per- 
sian encroachments.  When  Aristagoras  had  roused  the  Greeks 
of  Asia  Minor,  he  crossed  over  to  Greece  and  first  sought  the 
aid  of  Sparta,  as  the  most  powerful  of  the  Greek  states.  Meet- 
ing with  a  rebuff  here,  he  turned  to  Athens,  as  the  second  city  of 
Greece.  Athens  regarded  herself  as  the  mother  of  the  Ionian 
colonies.  She  was  also  indignant  because  Persia  had  espoused 
the  cause  of  her  former  tyrant,  Hippias,  w^hom  she  had  ban- 
ished some  time  before  (see"pagel31).  Persia  thus  seemed  to 
Athens  to  be  the  supporter  of  tyranny,  while  her  own  kins- 
men w'ere  struggling  for  liberty.  The  Athenians  accordingly 
voted  that  a  squadron  of  twenty  ships  be  sent  to  the  aid  of  the 
Ionian  cities.  '  To  this  squadron  were  added  five  ships  from 
Eretria  in  Euboea  ;  and  this  small  fleet  formed  the  first  hostile 
expedition  sent  by  the  European  Greeks  against  Persia. 

The  Burning  of  Sardis  (499  e.g.).  —  Before  the  satrap  Arta- 
phernes  could  gather  a  sufficient  force  to  defend  his  capital,  the 
Greeks  "made  themselves  masters  of  the  whole  city,  except 
the  citadel.  One  of  the  buildings  being  set  on  fire  by  a  soldier, 
the  flames  spread  from  house  to  house  until  the  whole  city  was 
consumed.  ...  In  the  burning  of  Sardis  the  temple  of  Cyb'ele, 
the  tutelar  goddess  of  the  country,  was  totally  destroyed,  which 
was  afterward  made  a  pretense  by  the  Persians  for  burning  the 
temples  of  the  Greeks''  (Herodotus,  Bk.  Y.,  Chs.  101,  102). 
The  Greeks  in  their  retreat  from  the  city  were  followed  by 
the  Persian  army  and  suffered  a  severe  defeat.  This  so  dis- 
heartened the  Athenians  that  they  returned  to  Greece.  The 
burning  of  Sardis,  with  its  sacred  temple,  aroused  the  wrath 
of  Darius  against  the  Athenians.  Herodotus  tells  the  .story 
that  the  king,  on  learning  of  this  disaster,  called  on  Zeus  for 
vengeance,  and  commanded  a  slave  to  remind  him  thrice  every 
day  of  the  Athenians  who  had  dared  to  interfere  in  the  affairs 
of  Asia. 

Suppression  of  the  Revolt. — ^^The  lonians  continued  their 
resistance;  but  on  account  of  their  lack  of  union  and  effect- 
ive organization,  they  were  unable  to  cope  with  the  forces  of 
morey's  greek  hist. 11 


176  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

the  king.  Off  the  little  island  of  La'de,  near  Miletus,  they 
were  severely  defeated  by  the  Persian  navy.  The  city  of 
Miletus,  the  center  of  the  revolt,  was  stormed,  captured,  and 
burned ;  and  its  inhabitants  who  escaped  the  sword  were 
reduced  to  slavery.  The  remaining  cities  of  Asia  Minor  were 
reduced  in  rapid  succession.  The  neighboring  islands  which 
had  taken  part  in  the  revolt  —  Chios,  Lesbos,  and  Ten'edos 
—  were  obliged  to  succumb.  The  Persian  fleet  reduced 
the  rebellious  towns  on  the  Hellespont  and  the  Propontis. 
The  people  of  Chalcedon  and  Byzantium  fled  at  the  Persians' 
approach,  and  their  cities  were  destroyed.  The  able  Greek 
commander,  Milti'ades,  who  was  ruler  of  the  Thracian  Cher- 
sonese, and  who  had  favored  the  cause  of  the  Ionian  cities, 
escaped  and  took  refuge  in  Athens.  After  a  war  of  nearly 
seven  years  (500-493 b.c),  the  revolt  was  entirely  suppressed, 
and  the  Persian  authority  was  reestablished  in  Asia  Minor 
with  greater  severity  than  ever  before. 

We  see  in  the  course  of  the  Ionian  revolt  one  of  the  chief 
elements  of  weakness  that  marked  the  Greek  race;  namely, 
the  lack  of  union  and  the  incapacity  for  effective  organization. 
"  At  no  time  was  there  anything  which  could  be  called  soli- 
darity among  the  Asiatic  Greeks ;  even  the  members  of  the 
same  tribe  had  nothing  to  bind  them  together,  except  the 
worship  of  a  common  deity''  (Abbott).  By  loving  liberty 
more  than  union,  they  lost  their  independence. 

SELECTIONS  FOR   READING 

Allcroft,  Vol.  IL,  Ch.  1,  "  Introductory"  (10). i 
Smith;  Ch.  15,  "Rise  of  the  Persian  Empire"  (10). 
Oman,  Ch.  13,  "  Greeks  of  Asia  and  the  Lydian  Monarchy"  (10). 
Bury,  Ch)  6,  "Advance  of  Persia  to  the  ^gean"  (10). 
Timayenis,  Vol.  I.,  Part  III.,  Ch.  1,  "Persia  "  (11).  ■ 
Cox,  General  History,  Bk.  IL,  Chs.  1,  2,  "The  Persian  Empire"  (10); 
Greek  Statesmen,  "  Aristagoras  "  (26). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


INVASIONS   OF   GREECE   BY  DARIUS  AND   XERXES      177 

Abbott,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  16,  "  The  Greeks  in  the  East  "  (11). 

Curtius,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  5,  "  Conflicts  with  the  Barbarians"  (11). 

Holm,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  23,  "  The  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  in  Conflict  with  Lydia 

and  Persia"  (11). 
Grote,  Part  II.,  Chs.  32, 33,  "  Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Persian  Empire  "  (11). 
Herodotus,  Bk.  III.,  "Thalia"  (Extension  of  the  Persian  Empire)  (13). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  Ionian  Revolt. —Smith,  Ch.  16  (10)  ;  Cox,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  3  (10)  ; 
Oman,  Ch.  15  (10)  ;  Timayenis,  Vol.  I.,  pp.  131-135  (11)  ;  Bury,  Ch.  6, 
§6  (10)  ;  Abbott,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  39-56  (11)  ;  Curtius,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  193-204 
(11)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  1  (11)  ;  Herodotus,  Bk.  V.,  Chs.  28-38,49-54, 
97-126  (13). 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE  INVASIONS  OF  GREECE  BY  DARIUS  AND  XERXES 

I.    The  First  Invasion,  under  Darius 

The  Plans  of  Darius  against  Greece. —  By  the  suppression  of 
the  Ionian  revolt,  the  Persian  king  was  left  free  to  pursue  his 
policy  of  conquest.  He  was  now  determined  to  punish  Athens 
and  Eretria  for  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  Asia,  and  especially 
for  the  part  they  had  taken  in  the  burning  of  Sardis.  Darius 
accordingly  laid  his  plans  to  insure  the  successful  invasion  of 
Greece.  In  the  first  place,  it  was  necessary  to  secure  the  Idys,^ 
alty  of  the  Ionian  cities,  so  that  another  expedition  into 
Europe  might  not  be  endangered  by  another  revolt  in  Asia. 
In  the  next  place,  it  was  necessary  to  reconquer  the  people  of 
Thrace  and  Macedonia,  who  had  practically  recovered  their 
independence  during  the  Ionian  revolt.  For  the  execution  of 
these  plans,  the  king  appointed  his  young  son-in-law,  Mardo'- 
nius.  The  duties  laid  upon  Mardonius  were,  therefore  :  (1)  to 
conciliate  the  Ionian  cities ;  (2)  to  restore  the  Persian  suprem- 
acy in  Thrace  and  Macedonia;  and  (3)  to  invade  Greece  and 
destroy  the  cities  of  Eretria  and  Athens. 


178  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

Failure  of  the  Expedition  under  Mardonius  (492  b.c).  —  Hav- 
ing collected  an  army  and  fleet  in  Cilicia  (sUish'i-a),  Mardonius 
proceeded  to  execute  the  designs  of  the  king.  He  first  paci- 
fied the  Asiatic  Greeks.  He  did  this,  not  as  Artaphernes  had 
tried  to  do,  by  supporting  their  hated  tyrants,  but  by  expel- 
ling these  despotic  officers  and  restoring  the  Grecian  democra- 
cies. He  thus  took  away  from  the  cities  one  of  the  chief  causes 
of  their  discontent.  He  then  entered  Europe  by  way  of  the 
Hellespont.  His  fleet  reduced  the  island  of  Thasos.  His 
land  forces  pursued  their  way  through  Thrace  into  Macedonia, 
and  in  spite  of  a  temporary  defeat  brought  these  territories  once 
more  under  the  Persian  power.  The  first  and  second  parts  of 
his  programme  were  thus  successfully  carried  out.  But  Eretria 
and  Athens  did  not  receive  the  punishment  intended  for  them ; 
for  the  entire  fleet  of  Mardonius  was  wrecked  as  it  attempted  to 
round  the  rocky  point  of  Mt.  Athos  (see  map,  page  72).  This 
first  expedition  thus  failed  to  accomplish  its  ultimate  purpose ; 
but  this  failure  did  not  quench  the  wrath  of  the  Persian  king. 

Relations  of  Athens  and  Sparta. —  It  soon  became  clear  that 
if  Greece  was  to  be  saved  from  the  vengeance  of  Persia,  it  could 
be  done  only  by  the  united  efforts  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  the 
two  leading  states  of  Hellas.  If  Darius  had  intended  simply 
to  punish  Athens,  Sparta  might  have  been  inclined  to  hold 
aloof.  But  when  the  king  sent  his  heralds  to  all  the  cities 
of  Greece,  demanding  from  them  "earth  and  water"  as 
a  token  of  submission,  it  was  evident  that  Athens  and  Sparta 
must  stand  or  fall  together.  To  this  demand  of  the  king 
most  of  the  island  states,  including  ^gina,  yielded.  Many 
of  the  continental  states  hesitated;  but  Athens  and  Sparta 
stood  firm,  and  even  treated  with  indignity  the  royal  heralds. 
Though  Athens  was  the  special  object  of  the  king's  hatred, 
she  was  willing  to  recognize  the  headship  of  Sparta  in  the 
coming  conflict. 

Expedition  under  Datis  and  Artaphernes  (490  b.c).  — Darius 
placed  his  new  expedition  in  the  hands  of  a  Median  general, 
Datis,  and  his  own  nephew,  Artaphernes,  son  of  the  Persian 


INVASIONS   OF   GREECE   BY   DARIUS   AND   XERXES      179 

satrap  whom  we  have  before  noticed.  Instead  of  following  the 
previous  course  of  Mardonius  and  risking  another  disaster  at 
Mt.  Athos,  the  new  generals  proceeded  directly  across  the 
sea.  Their  fleet  consisted,  it  is  said,  of  six  hundred  triremes. 
On  their  way  they  captured  Naxos  and  reduced  its  inhabitants 
to  slavery.  But  they  spared  Delos,  the  seat  of  the  shrine 
of  Apollo.  They  soon  landed  on  the  island  of  Euboea,  and 
attacked  the  city  of  Eretria.  After  a  gallant  defense,  the  city 
fell  by  the  treachery  of  two  of  its  citizens.  It  was  burned  and 
its  people  were  enslaved.  The  Persians  now  crossed  over  to 
Attica  to  mete  out  a  similar  punishment  to  Athens.  By  the 
advice  of  Hippias,  the  banished  Athenian  tyrant  now  in  the 
service  of  the  enemy,  the  Persians  landed  on  the  shore  of 
Attica  near  the  plain  of  Marathon. 

Miltiades  and  the  Battle  of  Marathon  (490  b.c).  —  Upon 
Athens  now  rested  the  chief  duty  of  defending  Greece.  She 
collected  an  army  and  sent  it  to  meet  the  invaders.  It  was 
led  by  the  ten  strategi,  or  generals,  who  usually  commanded 
the  army  each  in  his  own  turn.  One  of  the  generals  was  Mil- 
tiades, who  had  previously  met  the  Persians  and  was  ac- 
quainted with  their  tactics.  To  Miltiades  it  seemed  necessary 
to  attack  the  Persians  on  the  plain  of  Marathon.  The'  other 
generals  were  divided  in  their  opinions,  but  finally  decided  to  ^  / 
yield  to  the  advice  of  Miltiades  and  to  give  to  him  the  chief  f'^^*^^"'' 
command.  A  swift  runner,  ^hilip'pides.  was  dispatched  to  /r-^ 
Sparta  for  aid.  This  aid  was  promised ;  but  it  was  delayed  on 
account  of  a  Spartan  superstition  that  an  army  should  not  be 
sent  away  before  the  time  of  the  full  moon.  The  only  assist- 
ance which  the  Athenians  received  was  from  the  friendly  city 
of  Platse'a,  which  sent  its  entire  army,  a  thousand  fighting 
men,  raising  the  total  force  to  ten  or  eleven  thousand.  The 
Greeks  were  drawn  up  in  front  of  the  town  of  Marathon. 
Opposite  them  the  Persians  were  stationed  nearer  the  sea  and 
supported  by  their  fleet.  The  battle  line  of  the  Greeks  was 
equal  in  length  to  that  of  the  Persians  ;  but  the  center  was  made 
weak  in  order  to  strengthen  the  wings.    At  a  given  signal,  the 


180 


THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


N> 


J  FM<-    /.S':^^'BAY    OF 
MABATHON 


Battle  of  Marathon,  b.c.  490 


Greeks,  heedless  of  superior  numbers  and  the  terrible  shower 
of  arrows,  rushed  upon  the  enemy.  The  battle  was  long  and 
obstinate.  The  Persians  broke  the  weak  center  of  the  Athe- 
nians and  pressed  forward  in  the  intervening  space.  But  the 
strong  wings  of  the  Greek  army  closed  upon  the  enemy  and 

routed  them  with  great 
slaughter.  The  Persians 
were  pursued  to  their 
ships,  and  with  great 
difficulty  embarked  and 
sought  refuge  upon  the 
open  sea.  Not  entirely 
discouraged,  the  Persians 
sailed  directly  to  Athens, 
hoping  to  find  the  city 
unguarded.  But  Miltia- 
des  made  a  forced  march 
to  Athens ;  and  the  Per- 
sians, when  they  arrived,  found  the  city  protected  by  the  vic- 
torious army  of  Miltiades.  Foil'ed  at  every  point,  Datis  and 
Artaphernes  sailed  with  their  defeated  forces  back  to  Asia. 
When  the  full  moon  was  passed,  the  Spartan  army  arrived  to 
find  that  Marathon  had  been  won. 

The  Athenians  were  entitled  to  look  upon  Marathon  as  their 
own  battlefield.  The  Spartans  paid  the  highest  tribute  to 
their  valor.  The  poets  of  Greece  vied  with  one  another  in  sing- 
ing the  praises  of  the  dead  heroes.  A  monumental  mound  was 
thrown  up  in  their  honor,  which  remains  to  the  present  day. 
Two  statues  were  erected  to  Miltiades,  one  at  Athens  and  the 
other  at  Delphi.  While  the  battle  of  Marathon  did  not  end 
the  struggle  between  the  East  and  the  West,  it  marked  an  im- 
portant step  toward  the  ascendency  of  Athens  in  Greece,  and 
of  Greece  in  the  civilization  of  the  world. 

Fall  of  Miltiades.  —  By  the  victory  at  Marathon,  Miltiades 
became  the  great  hero  of  the  hour  ;  but  from  his  exalted  posi- 
tion he  was  destined  soon  to  fall.      He  had  proved  himself 


INVASIONS   OF   GREECE   BY  DARIUS   AND   XERXES      181 

to  be  the  greatest  soldier  that  Greece  had  yet  produced. 
Flushed  with  honor,  he  promised  the  Athenians  other  victories 
if  they  would  intrust  him  with  a  sufficient  force.  Herodotus 
tells  the  story  that  he  prevailed  upon  the  Athenians  to  grant 
him  seventy  ships  for  a  foreign  expedition  on  the  assurance 
that  he  would  enrich  them 
with  an  abundance  of  gold ; 
that  he  proceeded  against  the 
island  of  Paros,  which  had 
sided  with  Persia  during  the 
war,  and  failing  in  his  expedi- 
tion returned  to  Athens  ;  that 
he  was  charged  by  his  enemies 
with  deceiving  his  countrymen 
and  w^as  sentenced  to  pay  a 
fine  of  fifty  talents;  that  he 
died  soon  after  from  a  wound 
received  during  the  expedition, 
and  that  his  fine  was  paid  by 
his  son  Cimon  (Herodotus,  VI., 
132-136)..  This  pitiful  story 
need  not  affect  our  judgment 
of  Miltiades  as  the  first  great 


MiLTiADES  (So-called) 


soldier  of  Greece.  If  he  was  inconsiderate  in  making  a  fool- 
ish request  of  the  Athenians,  the  Athenians  were  quite  as 
inconsiderate  in  granting  such  a  request.  The  world  will 
think  of  Miltiades,  not  as  the  man  who  failed  in  an  expedition 
against  Paros,  but  as  the  heroic  warrior  who  won  the  battle  of 
Marathon. 


II.     Interval  between  the  First  and  Second  Invasions 
(490-480  B.C.) 

Position  of  Athens  in  Greece.  —  During  the  ten  years  which 
elapsed  between  the  battle  of  Marathon  and  the  next  Persian 
invasion,  Athens  was  gradually  rising  into  greater  prominence. 


182 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


The  great  victory  she  had  won  placed  her  upon  a  level  with 
Sparta  as  a  military  power.  She  looked  upon  her  success  as 
the  result  of  the  free  institutions  established  by  Clisthenes. 
Every  citizen  had  now  a  share  in  h^r  government,  and  took  a 
pride  in  the  glory  she  had  achieved.  The  democratic  spirit 
was  growing  stronger.  The  friends  of  Hippias,  the  banished 
tyrant,  were  ostracized ;  and  the  popular  party  held  the  reins 
of  government.  The  political  questions  which  now  arose  in 
Athens  were  questions  relating  not  so  much  to  the  form  of 
government  as  to  the  best  mode  of  maintaining  and  strength- 
ening the  Athenian  democracy. 

Aristides  and  Themistocles.  —  The  leaders  of  the  Athenian 
democracy  during  this  time  were  Aristi'des  and  Themis'tocles. 
Aristides,  who  was  called  "  the  Just,''  was  a  friend  of  liberty 
and  a  true  patriot.     He  had  supported  the  democratic  reforms 

of  Clisthenes,  and  had  com- 
manded the  Greek  center  at 
Marathon.  No  one  was  held 
in  higher  esteem  as  a  man  of 
personal  and  political  integ- 
rity. He  believed  in  preserv- 
ing the  institutions  and  the 
policy  which  had  made  Athens 
the  strong  and  successful  de- 
fender of  the  liberties  of 
Greece.  Themistocles  was  no 
less  a  lover  of  freedom  and  no 
less  a  patriot.  But  he  looked 
to  the  future  as  well  as  to  the 
present.  The  success  which 
Athens  had  already  attained 
should  not,- he  thought,  blind 
her  eyes  to  the  need  of  other  achievements.  He  looked  to 
what  Athens  might  do,  as  well  as  to  what  she  had  done. 
Without  attempting  to  compare  or  to  contrast  the  personal 
characters  of  these  two  leaders,  we  may  simply  look  upon  one 


Themistocles  (So-called) 


INVASIONS   OF   GREECE   BY   DARIUS   AND   XERXES      183 

as  the  conservative,  and  the  other  as  the  progressive  states- 
man of  Athens  —  both,  however,  the  friends  of  democratic 
government. 

The  Naval  Programme  of  Themistocles.  —  With  a  far-sighted 
vision  Themistocles  saw  tliat  the  battle  of  ^larathon  had  not 
ended  the  struggle  with  Persia.  He  also  saw  that  in  the  com- 
ing conflict  Athens,  the  chief  object  of  Persia's  hatred,  must 
again  bear  the  chief  brunt  of  Persia's  attack.  Persia  was  both 
a  great  military  and  a  great  naval  power.  In  any  future 
conflict,  if  Sparta  was  to  be  recognized  as  the  chief  military 
power  of  Greece,  Athens  should  be  recognized  as  its  chief 
maritime  power.  There  was  also  another  consideration  in 
favor  of  the  policy  of  Themistocles.  Athens  was  now 
embroiled  in  a  war  with  ^gina,  the  neighboring  island  state 
which  had  shown  a  sympathy  with  Persia,  ^gina  had  already 
a  strong  fleet.  The  only  hope  of  winning  in  this  war  was  by 
meeting  ships  with  ships.  With  arguments  such  as  these  The- 
mistocles enforced  upon  the  people  the  need  of  a  strong  navy. 
4^^  Ostracism  of  Aristides.  —  This  progressive  scheme  naturally 
excited  the  opposition  of  the  conservative  men  of  Athens. 
They  argued  that  if  Persia  attempted  to  invade  Greece  by  way 
of  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  it  would  be  necessary  to  meet  her 
with  a  land  force.  If  she  came  again  by  the  sea,  she  could 
again  be  defeated  as  she  had  been  defeated  at  Marathon  —  by 
a  land  force.  Upon  the  well-armed  hoplites  Greece  might 
depend  in  the  future  as  she  had  done  in  the  past.  Aristides 
was  in  sympathy  with  these  views.  But  the  people  yielded  to 
the  influence  of  Themistocles.  That  the  new  naval  project 
might  be  carried  through  without  hindrance,  Aristides  was 
ostracized.  Themistocles  thus  became  the  leader  at  Athens 
without  a  rival. 

Athens  becomes  a  Maritime  Power.  —  It  was  through  the 
influence  and  patriotism  of  Themistocles  that  Athens  became 
the  greatest  naval  power  in  Greece.  This  was  brought  about  by 
the  building  of  a  strong  fleet  and  the  construction  of  an  adequate 
harbor.     The  fleet  was  built  with  the  aid  of  the  silver  mines 


184  THE  ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 

recently  opened  at  Laurium  in  the  south  of  Attica.  It  was  at 
first  proposed  that  the  product  of  these  mines,  which  belonged 
to  the  state,  should  be  divided  among  the  citizens.  But 
Themistocles  appealed  to  the  patriotism  of  the  people  and 
induced  them  to  devote  the  proceeds  of  the  mines  to  the 
building  of  war  ships.  In  a  short  time  Athens  possessed  a 
fleet  of  two  hundred  triremes,  numbering  more  than  that  of 
^gina  and  Corinth  combined.  About  this  time  —  perhaps 
earlier  —  Themistocles  also  transferred  the  harbor  of  Athens 
from  the  bay  of  Phale'rum,  which  was  exposed  alike  to  storms 
and  to  enemies,  to  the  Pirse'us,  which  was  far  better  adapted  for 
a  naval  station.  This  new  port  was  surrounded  by  natural  de- 
fenses, but  was  now  further  strengthened  by  fortifications.  On 
account  of  these  works  Themistocles  may  properly  be  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  maritime  greatness  of  Athens.  It  was 
by  his  foresight  and  genius  that  Athens,  and  Greece  as  well, 
was  made  ready  for  the  next  great  war  with  Persia. 


III.     The  Second  Persian  Invasion,  under  Xerxes 


t 


The  Preparations  of  Persia.  —  The  first  invasion  of  Greece 
had  ended  in  a  humiliating  defeat.  Herodotus  tells  us  that 
Darius,  who  had  been  already  exasperated  with  the  Athenians, 
was  still  more  incensed  when  he  heard  of  the  defeat  at 
Marathon  (Herodotus,  Vll.,  1).  The  king  therefore  began  the 
greatest  preparations  for  a  new  attack.  But  these  were 
interrupted  by  a  revolt  in  Egypt,  and  were  finally  cut  short  by 
the  death  of  the  king  himself.  Darius  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Xerxes,  a  man  of  far  greater  pretensions  and  of  far  less 
ability  than  his  father.  Prompted  to  take  up  the  task  left 
unfinished  by  Darius,  he  called  together  his  nobles  and 
announced  his  purpose.  "As  Cyrus,  Cambyses,  and  Darius," 
he  said,  "  have  each  enlarged  the  empire,  I  wish  to  do  the  same. 
I  propose  to  bridge  the  Hellespont  and  march  through  Europe, 
and  fire  Athens  for  burning  Sardis  and  opposing  Datis  and 
Artaphernes.     By   reducing  Attica  and  Greece,  the  sky  will 


INVASIONS   OF   GREECE   BY   DARIUS   AND   XERXES      185 

be  the  only  boundary  of  Persia  "  (Herodotus,  YII.,  8).  Four 
years  he  spent  in  preparing  for  his  great  expedition.  Infantry, 
cavalry,  horse  transports,  provisions,  long  ships  for  bridges, 
and  war  ships  for  battles  were  collected  from  various  Asiatic 
nations.  Three  years  were  spent  in  cutting  a  channel  through 
the  isthmus  at  Athos,  to  evade  the  promontory  near  which  the 
fleet  of  Mardonius  had  been  wrecked.  Xerxes  ordered  two 
bridges  of  ships  to  be  thrown  across  the  Hellespont,  over 
which  his  enormous  army  might  pass  into  Europe. 

The  Congress  at  Corinth  (481  e.g.).  —  In  view  of  these  immense 
preparations,  the  Greeks  were  convinced  more  than  ever  before 
that  upon  their  union  depended  their  strength  and  safety.  To 
no  one  else  was  this  more  clear  than  to  Themistocles,  the  great 
Athenian,  who  was  in  this  crisis  the  soul  of  Greece.  In  fact 
at  no  time  did  Hellas  come  so  near  being  one  nation  as  it  did 
under  the  influence  of  Themistocles.  At  his  suggestion,  a 
congress  of  the  Greek  states  was  called  at  Corinth  to  consider 
the  means  of  defense.  The  Greeks  there  assembled  decided  to 
lay  aside  all  internal  strifes  and  to  act  together  against  the 
common  foe.  They  sent  envoys  to  the  states  not  represented, 
with  the  request  to  furnish  aid  for  the  defense  of  their  com- 
mon country.  By  this  means  they  were  able  to  know  who 
was  for  them  and  who  was  against  them.  Argos  replied  that 
she  would  yield  to  the  request  if  she  were  granted  an  equal 
share  in  the  command  with  Sparta.  Gelo,  the  tyrant  of  Syra- 
cuse, agreed  to  send  a  large  force  provided  he  was  made  com- 
mander in  chief,  or  at  least  commander  of  the  combined  fleet. 
These  conditional  offers  were  rejected.  Corey ra,  with  more 
apparent  grace,  agreed  to  furnish  sixty  ships  —  but  the  ships 
never  came.  It  was  evident  that  dependence  could  be  placed 
only  upon  the  states  represented  in  the  congress,  which  states 
now  formed  a  united  Hellas.  To  Sparta,  which  was  already 
the  head  of  the  Peloponnesian  league,  was  given  the  nominal 
headship  of  this  new  Greek  confederation. 

The  Greek  Lines  of  Defense.  —  The  question  now  arose  as  to 
the  best  mode  of  defending  the  Grecian  territory.     The  answer 


186 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


to  this  question  depended  upon  the  phj^sical  features  of  the 
country,  and  also  upon  what  parts  of  Greece  should  be  pro- 
tected. There  were  three  principal  points  at  which  Greece 
could  be  defended.  The  first  of  these  points  was  at  the  vale 
of  Tempe,  where  the  entrance  into  northern  Greece  could  be 
guarded.  The  second  was  farther  south,  at  the  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae, where  'an  entrance  into  central  Greece  could  be  pre- 
vented. The  third  point  was  still  farther  south  at  the  Isthmus 
of  Corinth,  by  which  the  Peloponnesus  could  be  defended ;  but 

a  stand  here  would 
require  the  abandon- 
ment of  Attica.  The 
defense  of  any  of  these 
points,  which  were  all 
near  the  shore,  would 
require  the  support  of 
the  Grecian  fleet  to 
prevent  the  Persians 
from  landing  a  force 
in  the  rear  of  the 
position.  It  became 
evident  that  the  land 
and  naval  forces 
could  best  cooperate 
at  Thermopylae;  for 
the  shore  to  the  south  of  this  place  is  protected  by  the  long 
island  of  Euboea,  and  cannot  be  approached  by  a  fleet  coming 
from  the  north,  except  through  the  narrow  strait  leading  from 
the  point  of  Artemis'ium.  Here  the  army  could  defend  the 
pass,  and  the  navy  could  guard  the  strait.  When  the  north- 
ern pass  at  Tempe  was  found  to  be  untenable,  it  was  decided 
to  make  a  stand  at  Thermopylae  —  no  doubt  the  strongest 
defensive  point  in  Greece. 

The  Advance  of  Xerxes.  —  After  collecting  his  forces  at  Sardis, 
Xerxes  marched  to  the  Hellespont.  Crossing  into  Thrace,  the 
army  was  reenforced  by  the  fleet,  which  had  followed  by  way 


1  V  \\^ 
nth     >    -V     ^  "^V^ 


Seat  of  the  Second  Persian  War 


Route  of  Persian  Army 
Course  of  Persian  Fleet 


INVASIONS   OF   GREECE   BY  DARIUS   AND   XERXES      187 


of  the  coast.  Here  the  great  king  reviewed  his  immense  arma- 
ment, gathered,  it  is  said,  from  forty-six  different  nations. 
Here  were  Persians  clad  in  corselets  and  armed  with  great 
bows  and  short  javelins.  Here  were  Ethiopians  covered  with 
,  the  skins  of  beasts  and  having  arrows  tipped  with  sharp  stones. 
Here  were  the  savages  from  central  Asia,  and  the  more  civi- 
lized warriors  from  Assyria  and  Media.  According  to  Herodo- 
tus the  whole  army  amounted  to  some  millions  of  men.  The 
fleet  consisted  of  more  than  twelve  hundred  ships  collected 
from  Phoenicia,  Egypt,  Ionia,  Cyprus,  and  other  maritime 
states.  With  this  prodigious  armament  Xerxes  hoped  to  appal 
and  overwhelm  the  little  armies  and  fleets  of  Greece.  He 
advanced  by  way  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia  to  the  pass  at 
Tempe,  and  was  surprised  to  find  this  point  abandoned.  He 
then  pushed  through  Thessaly  and  approached  the  pass  of 
Thermopylae. 

Thermopylae  and  Artemisium  (480  b.c). — The  first  conflict 
between  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians  comprised  both  a  land 
and  a  naval  battle.  The 
army,  under  one  of  the 
Spartan  kings,  Leon'idas, 
was  intrusted  with  the  de- 
fense' of  Thermopylae,  a 
narrow  pass  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea.  The 
Grecian  fleet,  also  under 
the  command  of  a  Spartan, 
— but  having  Themistocles 
in  charge  of  the  Athenian 
division,  —  had  been  dispatched  to  Artemisium  to  prevent  the 
approach  of  the  Persians  by  the  sea.  Leonidas  had  with  him 
about  four  thousand  men,  including  three  hundred  Spartans, 
whom  he  stationed  behind  an  old  wall  once  built  by  the 
Phocians.  That  the  whole  Spartan  army  was  not  hurried  to 
the  defense  of  this  most  important  position,  was  due  to  a  super- 
stition similar  to  that  which  had  before  delayed  the  arrival  of 


M  t  .  C  d  I  I  ,  d  , 

D    O    K    I    S  r    n    vj_o    I    o 


Pass  of  THERMOPYLiE 


188  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

the  Spartan  troops  at  Marathon.  But  with  his  small  force 
Leonidas  determined  to  hold  the  pass.  For  two  days  Xerxes 
hurled  against  him  as  large  detachments  of  his  army  as  he  was 
able  —  but  in  vain.  Even  the  "Ten  Thousand  Immortals" 
were  repulsed.  Then  a  citizen  of  Malis,  who  has  been  branded 
as  the  "Judas  of  Greece,"  Ephial'tes  by  name,  revealed  to 
Xerxes  a  secret  path  over  the  mountains,  by  which  a  force 
could  be  thrown  in  the  rear  of  the  Spartan  position.  By  this 
act  of  treachery  Thermopylae  was  lost.  Leonidas  and  his 
Spartan  band  preferred  death  to  dishonor,  and  perished  —  ex- 
amples for  all  time  of  courage  and  patriotic  devotion. 

At  Artemisium  the  Grecian  fleet  was  held  to  its  duty  by 
the  inspiring  influence  of  Themistocles.  The  fleet  comprised 
nearly  three  hundred  vessels,  about  half  of  which  were  fur- 
nished by  Athens.  By  persuasion,  and  even  by  bribery, 
Themistocles  induced  the  Spartan  commander  to  hold  his  posi- 
tion. For  three  successive  days  the  Greeks  fought  the  Persian 
navy.  Although  these  battles  were  indecisive,  they  prevented 
the  Persians  from  approaching  Thermopylae  by  the  sea.  But 
when  the  news  came  that  Thermopylae  was  lost,  it  was  useless 
to  hold  this  position  longer ;  and  the  fleet  retired  southward  to 
the  island  of  Sal'amis  All  central  Greece  was  now  open  to 
the  invader. 

Themistocles  and  the  Battle  of  Salamis  (480  b.c).  — The  army 
of  Xerxes  pushed  through  central  Greece  into  Attica,  burned 
Athens,  and  destroyed  the  temples  on  the  Acropolis.  The 
inhabitants  fled  to  the  neighboring  towns.  The  Persian  fleet 
meanwhile  followed  the  Greeks  to  Salamis.  It  was  here  that 
Themistocles  by  his  influence  and  adroitness  brought  on  the 
decisive  battle  of  the  war.  The  Peloponnesian  army  had 
retreated  behind  the  wall  thrown  across  the  Isthmus  of  Cor- 
inth, and  its  leaders  insisted  that  the  fleet  should  retire  to  the 
same  place.  But  Themistocles  saw  the  great  advantage  of 
fighting  in  the  narrow  strait  between  Salamis  and  the  Attic 
shore,  where  only  a  part  of  the  Persian  fleet  could  be  brought 
into  action.     The  council  of  Greek  admirals,  however,  decided 


INVASIONS   OF   GREECE   BY   DARIUS   AND   XERXES      189 


to  retire  toward  Corinth,  where  they  could  act  with  the  land 
forces,  and  also  have  a  way  of  retreat  if  defeated.  Themisto- 
cles  showed  to  the  Spartan  commander  that  to  retire  from  their 
present  position  would  cause  the  abandonment  of  the  allied 
states  of  Salamis,  Megara,  and  ^Egina,  and  would  offer  the  fleet 
a  temptation  to  disperse  for  the  defense  of  the  various  cities. 
A  new  council  was  called,  and  in  the  heat  of  debate  Themisto- 
cles  was  charged  with  being  a  "  man  without  a  country,"  now 
that  Athens  was  lost.  But  he  replied  that  with  a  hundred  and 
eighty  war  ships  at  his  command  he  could  found  a  city  any- 
where. He  threatened  to  withdraw  his  vessels  and  sail  to 
Italy  if  the  allies  saw  fit  to  abandon  their  Athenian  comrades. 
By  this  threat  the  allies  were  persuaded  to  stand  firm  and 
fight  in  the  strait.  But  to  prevent  any  further  indecision, 
Themistocles  sent  a  messenger  to  Xerxes,  giving  the  advice,  as 
coming  from  a  friend,  that  the  Greeks  must  be  attacked  imme- 
diately to  prevent  their  escape.  Xerxes  accordingly  ordered 
up  his  fleet,  and  sent  the  Egyptian  squadron  to  the  strait  oppo- 
site Megaris,  to  prevent  any  escape  west  of  Salamis.  At  this 
juncture  Aristides  arrived  from  his  retirement  in  ^gina,  and 
pleaded  with  his  old  rival  that  they  should  now  be  rivals  only 
in  the  cause  of  Greece.  He  announced  that  the  battle  must 
take  place  at  Salamis,  as  all  means 
of  escape  were  cut  off.  This  showed 
Themistocles  that  his  plans  had 
been  successful. 

The  Greek  fleet  now  held  the 
strait  east  of  Salamis.  The  Per- 
sian squadron  gathered  on  its 
front.  The  Phoenicians  moved 
in  heavy  columns  on  the  right 
and  the  Ionian s  on  the  left.  The 
great  king  sat  upon  a  throne 
erected  on  the  slope  of  Mt.  ^ga'leos  to  watch  the  conflict. 
The  details  of  this  battle  are  uncertain  ;  but  the  victory  of  the 
Greeks  was  decisive.     The  Phoenician  squadron,  upon  which 


Battle  of  Salamis,  b.c.  480 


190  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

the  king  chiefly  relied,  was  shattered.  Nearly  half  of  the 
Persian  fleet  was  destroyed;  and  a  new  glory  crowned  the 
loyal  states  of  Greece. 

Continuance  of  the  War  by  Mardonius.  —  The  victory  at  Sala- 
mis  had  broken  the  naval  power  of  Persia;  but  the  land 
forces  were  still  intact.  Xerxes,  however,  seemed  to  regard 
the  cause  of  Persia  as  lost,  and  ordered  a  general  retreat  of  the 
army.  He  directed  the  remnants  of  his  fleet  to  hasten  to  the 
Hellespont  to  guard  the  bridges  by  which  he  might  recross 
into  Asia,  and  which  were  now  threatened  by  the  Greeks.  But 
there  was  one  man  who  still  seemed  to  believe  that  the  conquest 
of  Greece  might  be  completed  by  the  army  alone.  This  man  was 
Mardonius.  He  it  was  who  had  failed  in  the  flrst  expedition 
under  Cyrus,  and  who  had  encouraged  Xerxes  to  undertake  the 
present  invasion.  Intrusted  with  three  hundred  thousand  men, 
Mardonius  was  permitted  to  remain  in  Greece  to  retrieve  the 
disaster  at  Salamis.  Before  beginning  his  campaign  the  fol- 
lowing year,  Mardonius  sought  the  alliance  of  Athens  against 
the  rest  of  Greece.  He  promised  to  aid  the  Athenians  to 
rebuild  their  city  and  to  give  them  all  the  neighboring  terri- 
tory that  they  desired.  But  the  xlthenians  sent  back  the  word 
that  "  so  long  as  the  sun  keeps  its  course,  we  will  never  join 
the  cause  of  Xerxes"  (Herodotus,  VIII.,  143).  Attica  was  once 
more  invaded,  and  the  Athenians  were  again  obliged  to  flee  for 
safety.  Again  Greece  was  called  upon  to  resist  the  invaders. 
Athens  again  called  upon  Sparta  for  aid,  which  was  furnished 
after  the  usual  delay.  While  the  Grecian  army  was  being 
collected,  Mardonius  retreated  into  Boeotia,  near  Platsea,  to 
await  the  final  contest. 

Plataea  and  Mycale  (479  e.g.).  —  Against  the  army  of  Mar- 
donius the  Greeks  brought  a  force  of  about  a  hundred  thou- 
sand men  under  the  command  of  the  Spartan  Pausa'nias.  The 
Athenian  division  was  led  by  Aristides.  The  Spartan  com- 
mander was  evidently  convinced  of  the  superiority  of  the 
Athenian  division,  for  he  insisted  that  it  should  hold  the  place 
of  honor  and  danger  against  the  strongest  wing  of  the  Persian 


INVASIONS   OF   GREECE   BY   DARIUS   AND   XERXES      191 


Per$ian» 
Greek* 


army.  After  fighting  and  maneuvering  in  three  different 
positions,  the  battle  was  finally  decided  near  the  walls  of 
Platsea.  Although  the  generalship  of  Pausanias  was  faulty 
in  many  particulars,  the  day  was  won  by  the  sturdy  valor  of 
the  Spartans  and  the  brave  soldiers  of  Athens  and  Plataia. 
The  Persian  army  was 
nearly  annihilated.  Mar- 
donius  was  killed.  The 
surviving  Persians  fled 
to  Thebes  and  then  to 
Thessaly,  and  afterward 
made  their  way  back  to 
Asia.  Another  decisive 
victory  was  thus  added 
to  those  of  Salamis  and 
Marathon.  In  commemo- 
ration of  this  victory  the 
assembled  allies  made  an 
offering  of  thanksgiving 
to  Zeus  Eleuthe'rios  (the 
Deliverer),  and  instituted  a  public  festival,  called  the  Eleu- 
the'ria,  to  be  celebrated  once  in  every  four  years.  The  defensive 
alliance  against  Persia  was  also  renewed;  this  is  known  as 
the  "  league  of  Platsea." 

On  the  same  day,  it  is  said,  on  which  the  battle  of  Plataea 
was  fought,  the  Grecian  fleet,  having  set  out  from  Delos, 
gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Persian  navy  on  the  Asiatic 
coast  near  the  promontory  of  My c 'ale  (map,  page  80).  This 
gave  the  Ionian  Greeks  fresh  hope  that  the  day  of  their 
deliverance  was  near. 

The  Liberation  of  Greece.  —  From  this  brief  sketch  of  the  great 
events  in  the  Persian  wars,  we  can  gain  some  idea  of  their 
great  significance.  They  preserved  Greece  and  Europe  from 
Oriental  domination.  They  revealed  to  the  Greeks  their  own 
character  and  strength.  The  battles  of  Marathon  and  Ther- 
mopylae and  Salamis  and  Plataea  showed  them  that  courage 
morey's  greek  hist, — 12 


Battle  of  Plat^.a,  b.c.  479 


192  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

and  patriotism  are  virtues  essential  to  national  independence. 
These  wars  have  been  aptly  called  ''  wars  of  liberation."  The 
rout  of  the  Persians  saved  Greece  and  her  whole  civilization. 
"For  the  question  was  not  as  to  a  more  or  less  glorious  result 
of  the  contest,  or  the  rise  or  fall  in  the  relative  power  of  the 
combatants ;  it  rather  involved  the  annihilation  or  continuance 
of  Greek  life  "  (Curtius).  The  Greeks  were  not  only  freed  from 
foreign  domination ;  they  acquired  a  new  spirit  of  confidence 
and  an  intellectual  energy  which  inspired  them  to  new 
afihievements  in  the  fields  of  culture.  Their  victories  gave 
them  "half  a  century  of  comparative  repose  in  which  they 
were  able  to  devote  their  energies  to  the  works  of  peace  and 
attain  in  them  a  height  which  is  unique  in  history  "  (Holm). 

SELECTIONS  FOR   READING 

Smith,  Chs.  17-20,  Battles  of  Marathon,  Thermopylse,  Artemisium,  Sala- 

mis,  Platsea,  Mycale  (10). i 
Allcroft,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  3,  "  Them istocles  and  the  Naval  Programme  "  (10). 
Oman,  Chs.  19,  20,  "  The  Invasion  of  Xerxes"  (10). 
Bury,  Ch.  7,  "The  Perils  of  Greece"  (10). 
Abbott,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  3,  "  The  Great  Invasion  "  (11). 
Curtius,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  1,  "  The  War  of  Liberation  "  (11). 
Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  4,  "The  Year  480"  (11). 

Cox,  Greek  Statesmen,  "  Miltiades,"  "  Aristides,"  "  Themistocles  "  (26). 
Plutarch,  "Aristides,"  "Themistocles"  (13). 
Herodotus,  Bk.  VIII.,  "Urania"  (Artemisium  and  Salamis)   (13). 
^schylus.  Drama  of  "The  Persians"  (13). 

SPECIAL   STUDY 

Carthaginian  Invasion  of  Sicily. — Oman,  Ch.  21  (10)  ;  Bury,  pp. 
300-304  (10)  ;  Allcroft,  Vol.  IL,  Ch.  14  (10)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  6  (11)  ; 
Abbott,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  12  (11). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER   XV 

EFFECTS   OF  THE   PERSIAN   WARS   UPON   GREEK   CULTURE 
I.     The  New  Spirit  ix  Literature 

Transitional  Period  in  Greek  Culture.  —The  Persian  wars  mark 
an  epoch  not  only  in  the  political  but  in  the  intellectual  life  of 
Greece.  They  not  only  assured  the  independence  of  Greece  from 
foreign  dominion,  but  they  aroused  a  spirit  of  intellectual  free- 
dom, and  gave  a  new  vigor  and  earnestness  to  the  Greek 
mind.  The  people  had  formerly  been  accustomed  to  look  back 
to  the  time  of  Homer  as  their  "heroic  age."  They  were  now 
inclined  to  look  upon  their  own  heroes  as  equal  to  the  heroes 
of  the  Trojan  war.  "  The  idea  was  afloat  in  the  air  that  the 
Trojan  war  was  an  earlier  act  in  the  same  drama  —  that  the 
warriors  of  Salamis  and  Platsea  were  fighting  in  the  same 
cause  as  the  heroes  who  had  striven  with  Hector  on  the  plains 
of  Troy "  (Bury).  The  poems  of  Homer  now  became  more 
popular  ;  and  the  new  heroic  spirit  put  a  new  life  into  poetry 
and  art.  This  is  seen  in  the  higher  honor  which  was  now 
given  to  military  courage  —  in  the  pseans  sung  to  fallen  heroes, 
and  in  the  sculptures  carved  to  represent  warriors  and  warlike 
scenes.  The  culture  of  this  time  may  not  form  a  well-defined 
"  period  "  ;  but  it  marks  a  clear  transition  from  the  simple  and 
archaic  culture  which  preceded  it  in  the  formative  period  to 
the  more  highly  developed  culture  of  the  age  which  followed  it. 

Lyric  Poetry ;  Simonides.  —  We  may  see  the  influence  of  this 
new  spirit  in  the  more  vigorous  and  lofty  tone  given  to  lyric 
poetry.  The  poet  who  more  than  any  other  expressed  the 
patriotic  feeling  awakened  by  the  Persian  wars,  was  Simon'ides. 
Born  in  Ceos,  an  island  near  Attica,  he  spent  most  of  his  life 
in  Athens.    He  wai  a  man  of  the  world,  and  breathed  the  spirit 

193 


194  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

of  his  age.  He  was  also  a  philosophical  thinker,  whom  Plato 
called  "  the  wise  and  the  divine."  He  was  the  first  to  use  lyric 
measures  in  funeral  dirges  and  monumental  inscriptions.  He 
wrote  many  noble  epitaphs  in  honor  of  those  who  fell  in  the 
battles  of  the  Persian  wars,  for  example :  — 

"In  dark  Thermopylse  they  lie  ; 
Oh,  death  of  glory  thus  to  die  ! 
Their  tomb  an  altar  is,  their  name 
A  mighty  heritage  of  fame." 

The  Poetry  of  Pindar.  —  The  lyric  poetry  of  Greece  reached  its 
highest  development  in  Pindar.  This  great  poet  was  a  native 
of  Boeotia.  He  received  his  education  at  Athens ;  and  he  was 
honored  by  all  the  free  states  of  Hellas.  He  was  hence  a  truly 
national  poet.  While  he  did  not  despise  military  courage,  he 
believed  that  there  were  more  enduring  virtues  than  those  dis- 
played in  war.  Hostility  to  Persia  had  tended  to  unite  Greece 
in  war ;  but  something  else  was  needed  to  preserve  her  great- 
ness in  peace.  And  so  Pindar,  with  a  genius  far  superior  to 
that  of  Simonides,  glorified  the  national  institutions  of  Greece 
—  the  festivals,  the  games,  the  shrines  of  the  gods,  and  the 
higher  religious  beliefs  of  the  people.  The  poetry  of  Pindar 
was  lofty  in  its  spirit,  profuse  in  its  imagery,  and  sonorous  in 
its  rhythm.  His  triumphal  odes  comprise  the  chief  part  of  his 
works  that  have  come  down  to  us.  In  these  he  expressed  his 
admiration  for  physical  and  moral  virtue,  and  for  religious 
ideals,  as  well  as  his  belief  in  future  rewards  and  punish- 
ments.    And  so  he  sings  :  — ■ 

♦'  The  deeds  that  stubborn  mortals  do 
In  this  disordered  nook  of  Jove's  domain 
All  find  their  meed  ;  and  there's  a  judge  below 
Whose  hateful  doom  inflicts  th'  inevitable  pain." 

Rise  of  Dramatic  Poetry.  —  Another  way  in  which  the  spirit 
of  the  new  age  showed  itself  is  seen  in  the  rise  of  dramatic 
poetry.  The  drama  grew  out  of  one  form  of  the  lyric.  We 
have  already  seen  how  the  early  lyric  poetry  acquired  two  dis- 


EFFECTS  OF  PERSIAN  WARS  UPON  GREEK  CULTURE     195 

tinct  forms,  the  ^olian  and  the  Dorian  —  the  one  expressed 
in  the  ode  to  be  sung  or  recited  by  a  single  person ;  the  other 
expressed  in  the  choral  hymn  to  be  sung  by  a  number  of  voices 
(see  page  161).  The  personal  ode  reached  its  perfection  in 
Pindar.  But  the  choral  hymn,  which  had  been  used  by  Arion 
for  the  worship  of  Dionysus,  and  which  was  known  as  the 
dithyramb,  became  transformed  into  the  drama.  Heretofore  the 
chorus  had  been  accompanied  by  dancing  and  gesticulations 
and  had  expressed  in  a  rude  and  wild  way  the  emotions  sup- 
posed to  be  appropriate  to  the  worship  of  Dionysus,  the  wine 
god.  But  Thespis,  a  lyric  poet  of  Attica,  introduced  an  actor 
who  assumed  different  characters  and  carried  on  a  sort  of  dia- 
logue with  the  leader  of  the  chorus  ;  and  this  served  to  explain 
the  motive  of  the  choral  hymn.  This  form  of  the  drama,  with 
a  single  actor,  was  cultivated  by  Phryn'ichus,  wiio  took  for  his 
subject  events  in  the  Persian  wars.  His  tragedy  on  the  "  Capture 
of  Miletus  "  melted  his  audience  into  tears ;  but  as  it  seemed 
to  reproach  the  Athenians  for  not  aiding  their  kin  beyond  the 
sea,  a  fine  was  imposed  upon  him  and  the  play  was  proscribed. 
In  a  later  tragedy,  however,  he  stirred  the  patriotic  feeling  of 
his  audience  by  depicting  the  effect  which  the  news  of  the 
battle  of  Salamis  had  upon  the  Persian  court. 

The  Tragedies  of  .^schylus.  —  But  the  greatest  dramatist  and 
literary  genius  of  the  period  of  the  Persian  wars  was  iEs'chylus, 
who  lifted  tragedy  into  the  domain  of  genuine  art.  He  was 
present  at  the  battles  of  Marathon,  Artemisium,  Salamis,  and 
Plataea.  He  surpassed  Simonides  in  his  patriotic  fervor, 
Pindar  in  his  lofty  spirit,  and  Phrynichus  in  his  pathetic 
power.  He  improved  the  form  of  the  drama  by  introducing  a 
second  actor;  so  that  the  dialogue  became  the  principal  fea- 
ture, while  the  chorus  echoed  the  emotions  produced  by  the 
play.  By  combining  the  dialogue  and  the  chorus  he  depicted 
some  great  event,  either  historical  or  mythical,  so  as  to  reveal 
the  workings  of  human  passion  under  the  control  of  the  divine 
will.  In  his  earliest  tragedy,  "  The  Persians,"  he  followed 
Phrynichus  in  picturing  the  effects  of  the  news  of  Salamis 


196 


THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 


upon  the  court  of  Persia.  The  subjects  of  his  later  tragedies 
were  taken  from  the  heroic  myths,  but  infused  with  deep 
human  feeling  and  religious  sentiment.  His  greatest  work 
was  probably  the  "  Prome'theus  Bound,"  in  which  a  god, 
chained  to  a  rock  by  command  of  Zeus,  is  made  to  suffer  for 
the  good  deeds  done  to  men. 


II.    Improvement  in  Art  ;  Sculpture 

Transitional  Period  in  Greek  Sculpture.  —  As  the  literature 
of  this  period  shows  the  influence  of  more  vigorous  thought 
and  a  more  elevated  spirit,  so  the  art  —  espe- 
cially sculpture  —  shows  a  similar  influence. 
The  crude  and  stiff  forms  of  the  archaic  period 
were  giving  way  to  more  careful  workmanship 
and  to  a  greater  freedom  of  design.  We  begin 
to  see  the  figures  in  stone  and  bronze  express- 
1     /      -1}  ^^^^  ^  greater  degree  of  life  and  action.     The 

L  \  Jr  *  patriotic  feeling  of  the  age  is  expressed  in 
*  .  vllfcj  bronze  and  marble;  and  the  warlike  virtues 
Jr-^3iSS  ^^^  exalted  in  the  sculptured  groups  which 
adorn  the  temples.  We  can  here  perceive  a 
distinct  movement  in  the  direction  of  that 
higher  art  which  was  to  follow  in  the  age  of 
Per'icles. 

Grave  Monuments ;  Aristion.  —  One  of  the 
earliest  evidences  of  this  change  is  seen  in 
the  care  bestowed  upon  monumental  designs, 
especially  those  intended  to  commemorate  the 
heroes  of  the  Persian  wars.  The  art  of  the 
sculptor  was  employed  to  honor  military  virtue. 
An  example  of  this  is  the  noted  gravestone,  or 
stele,  of  Aris'tion,  commonly  called  the  "  soldier 
of  Marathon."  Here  is  a  panoplied  warrior 
holding  his  upright  spear,  and  giving  the  impression  of  calm 
courage.     Although  there  are  some  features  of   the  archaic 


"  soldikr  of 
Marathon  " 


EFFECTS  OF  PERSIAN  WARS  UPON  GREEK  CULTURE     197 

style  still  remaining,  there  is  yet  a  certain  dignity  and  life- 
likeness  which  shows  some  advance  upon  the  older  art. 

Temple  Decoration ;  Marbles  of  ^gina.  —  More  striking  ex- 
amples of  the  vigorous  spirit  of  the  time  are  seen  in  the  decora- 
tion of  the  temples.  Hitherto,  the  metopes  in  the  frieze  had 
been  filled  with  small  reliefs,  representing  some  mythological 


jliij|iiiiiii|lpl||[iw 


Pediment  of  the  Temple  at  ^Egina  (Restored) 

person  or  event.  Now  the  whole  pediment,  between  the  archi- 
trave and  the  roof,  was  filled  with  groups  of  statuary,  revealing 
a  high  degree  of  life  and  action.  These  are  often  battle  scenes 
suggested  by  the  Trojan  war,  commemorating  Grecian  valor 
and  the  protecting  care  of  the  gods.  The  most  noted  of  the 
pedimental  groups  of  this  period  are  the  marbles  of  ^gina. 
The  group  in  the  western  pediment  is  supposed  to  illustrate 
the  struggle  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Trojans  over  the  body  of 
Patro'clus,  and  the  intervention  of  the  goddess  Athena.  In  the 
center  stands  the  calm  figure  of  the  goddess.  On  her  right  are 
the  Grecian  warriors,  on  her  left  the  Trojans — both  groups 
ciltved  in  the  attitude  of  combat. 

Attic  Statuary;  the  Tyrannicides.  —  The  progress  made  in 
the  direction  of  independent  statuary  is  seen  in  the  two  bronze 
figures  of  the  tyrannicides  at  Athens,  the  work  of  Ante'nor. 
These  statues,  although  separate,  were  intended  to  stand  to- 
gether representing  a  single  action.  They  were  intended  to 
honor  the  men  who  struck  the  fatal  blow  against  Athenian 
tyranny,  and  who  were  regarded  as  the  liberators  of  the  city 
—  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton  (see  page  131).     These  bronze 


198 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


figures  personify  the  spirit  of  liberty,  and  express  in  their 
vigorous  attitude  the  idea  of  physical  and  moral  bravery. 
The  original  statues  were  carried  away  from  Athens  by  Xerxes, 

and  another  group  was  set 
up  in  their  place.  When 
Alexander  the  Great  after- 
ward conquered  Persia,  he 
restored  to  Athens  the  origi- 
nal bronzes,  and  the  two 
groups  were  placed  side  by 
side  on  a  terrace  overlook- 
ing the  market  place. 

The  Works  of  Myron. — 
But  the  statuary  of  this 
transitional  period  reached 
its  highest  stage  in  the 
works  of  Myron,  who  ap- 
proached most  nearly  the 
great  sculptors  of  the  age 
of  Per'icles.  His  works  ex- 
hibit not  only  the  freedom 
and  action  which  generally 
marked  the  period,  but  an 


The  Tyrannicides  (Copies) 


exceptional  degree  of  anatomical  correctness.  In  them  we 
see  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  national  games  upon  Greek 
statuary.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  the  statues  of  Myron 
is  the  Discob'olus  (the  disc-thrower),  who  is  represented  in 
the  momentary  act  of  summoning  all  his  strength  to  hurl  the 
discus.  Every  limb,  every  muscle  is  tense  and  contributes  to 
the  main  action  of  the  body,  and  the  beholder  waits  expec- 
tantly to  see  the  feat  aocomplished.  Myron  executed  many 
other  works,  such  as  a  colossal  group,  on  one  pedestal,  of  Zeus, 
Athena,  and  Hercules;  and  statues  of  Apollo  and  of  Dionysus, 
as  well  as  a  noted  figure  of  a  satyr  (Mar'syas). 

These  works  of  Myron,  as  well  as  those  previously  men- 
tioned, grew  out  of  the  intellectual  activity  and  the  more  vig- 


EFFECTS  OF  PERSIAN  WARS  UPON  GREEK  CULTURE     199 

orous  life  which  attended  the  Persian  wars,  and  which  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  higher  and  more  refined  art  of  the 
coming  age. 


III.    State  of  Philosophy  and  Science 

The  Period  Unfavorable  to  Philosophy.  —  While  the  energetic 
spirit  of  this  period  gave  a  new  inspiration  to  literature  and 
art,  it  was  not  so  favorable  to  philosophical  and  scientific 
thought.  The  Greek  mind  was  stirred  with  intense  feelings, 
which  could  find  an  appropriate  expression  in  the  verses  of 
Simonides  or  the  marbles  of  ^gina.  But  the  times  were  not 
conducive  to  calm  reflection  and  the  construction  of  philo- 
sophical systems.  In- 
deed, the  most  influential 
philosophy  of  the  time 
was  perhaps  embodied  in 
the  exalted  words  of  wis- 
dom scattered  through 
the  verses  of  the  poets  — 
Simonides,  Pindar,  and 
^Eschylus.  The  only 
professed  philosophers 
whose  names  properly 
belong  to  this  period  are 
Heracli'tus  of  Ephesus 
and  Parmen'ides  of  Elea, 
two  men  who  lived  at  the 
opposite  extremes  of  the 
Hellenic  world, — the  one 
under  the  dark  shadow 
of  the  Persian  power,  the 
other  on  the  brighter  and 
more  peaceful  soil  of  Italy. 
Heraclitus  of  Ephesus. 
Discobolus  "  OF  Myron  — Asia  Minor  had   been 


200  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

the  original  home  of  Greek  philosophy.  Here  at  Miletus  had 
flourished  Thales,  Anaximander,  and  Anaximines.  But  the  Per- 
sian wars  had  blighted  the  culture  of  the  Ionian  cities.  The  last 
representative  of  the  Ionian  school  was  Heraclitus.  A  native 
of  Ephesus,  he  had  seen  his  land  ravaged  by  war  and  finally 
deprived  of  its  liberty.  In  despair  he  took  refuge  in  the 
neighboring  mountains,  and  in  his  hermit  retreat  he  deplored 
the  miseries  of  the  world.  He  was  aptly  called  the  "  weeping 
philosopher."  The  whole  world  seemed  to  him  to  be  a  world 
of  conflict  and  of  change.  To  him  everything  appeared  to  be  in 
a  state  of  agitation;  and  hence  he  laid  down  the  principle 
that  "  strife  is  the  father  of  all  things."  There  is  nothing 
stable  and  enduring;  and  so  he  reasoned  that  "all  things  are 
in  a  state  of  flow."  Everything  is  continually  coming  and 
going,  and  nothing  is  fixed.  If  there  is  any  primary  element 
in  the  universe,  it  must  be  something  like  fire,  which  never 
retains  a  definite  and  permanent  form.  The  philosophy  of  Hera- 
clitus embodied  the  natural  reflections  of  a  man  who  lived  in 
that  part  of  the  Greek  world  which  had  once  been  free  and 
prosperous,  but  which  had  now  lost  its  faith  and  hope. 

Parmenides  of  Elea.  —  If  the  Persian  war  quenched  the  philo- 
sophical spirit  in  Ionia,  where  it  had  once  flourished,  it  could  not 
be  expected  to  encourage  philosophy  in  Greece,  where  it  had 
not  yet  been  cultivated  to  any  extent.  Even  Sicily  had  suf- 
fered from  a  war  between  Syracuse  and  Carthage.  The  only 
spot  in  the  Hellenic  world  which  seemed  to  afford  an  oppor- 
tunity for  calm  reflection  and  high  philosophical  thought  was 
southern  Italy.  And  here  at  Elea  still  flourished  the  school 
established  by  Xenophaiies,  the  philosopher  who  believed  that 
the  universe  at  its  foundation  is  One,  and  that  that  One  is  God 
(see  page  164).  The  philosopher  who  now  arose  at  Elea  and 
who  was  doubtless  the  greatest  thinker  of  this  age,  was  Par- 
menides. If  Heraclitus  believed  that  everything  is  in  a  state 
of  change,  it  was  because  he  simply  looked  on  the  surface  of 
things  by  the  means  of  the  senses.  If  by  the  aid  of  reason 
we  look  below  the  surface,  we  shall  find  an  ultimate  principle 


EFFECTS  OF  PERSIAN  WARS  UPON  GREEK  CULTURE     201 

which  does  not  change  —  the  absolute  Being,  ever  the  same, 
yesterday,  to-day,  and  forever.  And  so  Parmenides  distin- 
guished between  the  world  of  sense,  which  is  only  appearance, 
and  the  world  of  reason,  which  is  reality.  With  such  a  faith 
in  an  eternal  principle,  he  lived  a  noble  life ;  and  it  became  a 
sort  of  proverb  among  the  Greeks  to  speak  of  a  ''life  like  that 
of  Parmenides." 

In  conclusion  we  may  say  that  the  Persian  wars  aroused  a 
sentiment  of  patriotism  and  encouraged  active  and  vigorous 
feelings,  which  were  expressed  in  poetry  and  art.  But  they 
discouraged  the  cultivation  of  calm  thought,  and  so  philoso- 
phy declined  in  Asia  Minor,  and  flourished  only  in  Italy,  which 
was  in  the  least  degree  affected  by  the  wars  of  the  period. 
But  we  shall  see  that  the  Persian  wars  indirectly  contributed 
to  the  growth  of  the  Athenian  empire  and  the  higher  culture 
of  the  age  of  Pericles. 

SELECTIONS   FOR  READING 

Smith,  Ch.  21,  "  History  of  Literature"  (10). i 

Mahaffy,  Survey,  Ch.  4,  "Passage  from  Sporadic  to  Systematic  Cul- 
ture" (10). 

Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  12,  "Literature,  Science,  and  Art"  (11). 

Pater,  p.  266  et  seq.,  "The  Marbles  of  ^gina"  (12). 

Tarbell,  Ch.  7,  "Transitional  Period  of  Greek  Sculpture"  (19). 

Collignon,  p.  127  et  seq.,  "The  ^ginetan  School"  (19). 

Perry,  Second  Period,  "From  500  b.c.  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Career 
of  Pericles"  (19). 

Symonds,  pp.  144-152,  "Simonides"  ;  Ch.  6,  "Pindar"  (23). 

Zeller,  §20,  "Parmenides"  ;  §  22,  "  Heracleitus "  (24). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

Greek  Music  and  Lyric  Poetry. — Bliimner,  pp.  111-113  (22); 
Gulick,  pp.  82-84  (22)  ;  Guhl  and  Koner,  pp.  199-212  (22)  ;  Harper's 
Class.  Diet.,  "Musica"  (18);  Smith,  Diet.  Antiq.,  "  Music,  Greek  "  (18)  ; 
AUcroft,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  185-188  (10)  ;  Jebb,  Greek  Poetry,  Ch.  4  (23). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


PERIOD  IV.     THE  ATHENIAN  EMPIRE;  AGE  OP  PERICLES 
(479-431   B.C.) 


CHAPTER   XVI 

THE   GROWTH   OF   THE   ATHENIAN   EMPIRE 
I.   Themistocles  and  the  Recovery  of  Athens 

The  Supremacy  of  Athens.  —  We  have  now  reached  the 
period  in  which  Athens  becomes  the  center  of  the  Greek 
world.  We  have  already  seen  this  remarkable  city  gradually 
coming  to  the  front.  Her  superiority  has  been  evident  in 
many  things  —  in  the  development  of  her  free  institutions ;  in 
the  growth  of  her  maritime  power;  in  the  influence  of  her  great 
statesmen ;  in  the  part  which  she  took  in  the  defense  of  Hellas. 
During  the  coming  half  century  we  shall  see  her  rising  into 
still  greater  prominence,  until  she  becomes  the  leader  of 
Greek  politics  and  of  Greek  civilization.  We  shall  see  her 
under  Themistocles  recovering  from  the  disasters  of  the  Per- 
sian wars.  We  shall  see  her  under  Aristides  becoming  the 
center  of  a  new  confederacy.  We  shall  see  her  under  Cimon 
establishing  her  supremacy  over  the  maritime  states  of  Greece. 
Finally,  under  Pericles,  we  shall  see  her  completing  her  empire 
and  reaching  the  highest  point  of  culture  attained  by  the 
ancient  world. 

The  Policy  of  Themistocles.  —  For  a  brief  time  after  the  re- 
treat of  the  Persians,  Themistocles  continued  to  shape  the 
destiny  of  Athens.  The  city  had  twice  been  occupied  by  the 
enemy,  and  it  was  now  a  heap  of  ruins.     The  people  returned 

202 


THE   GROWTH   OF  THE   ATHENIAN  EMPIRE  203 

from  their  places  of  refuge  in  Salamis  and  ^gina,  and  began 
to  rebuild  their  fallen  houses.  But  Themistocles  saw  that  a 
defense  for  the  city  was  quite  as  important  as  a  shelter  for  the 
citizens.  Without  strong  walls  their  homes  would  still  be  in- 
secure. But  he  looked  beyond  the  mere  matter  of  temporary 
safety;  he  still  clung  to  his  policy  of  making  Athens  the 
strongest  state  in  Greece.  He  saw  not  only  the  possibility  of 
another  invasion  from  a  foreign  enemy,  but  what  was  more 
likely,  the  possibility  of  a  war  with  jealous  neighbors.  At  any 
rate  Athens  should  be  fortified.  Her  walls  should  be  so  strong 
and  extensive  as  to  afford  a  safe  retreat  for  all  her  citizens. 
Yielding  to  the  influence  of  their  leader,  the  people  set  to  work 
in  earnest  to  encircle  the  city  with  new  walls. 

The  Building  of  the  City  Walls. — The  policy  of  Themisto- 
cles to  strengthen  Athens  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  neighbor- 
ing states,  ^gina  and  Corinth  appealed  to  Sparta  to  put  a 
stop  to  this  work.  An  embassy  was  therefore  sent  to  Athens 
to  remonstrate  against  the  scheme  of  fortifying  the  city.  As 
Themistocles  believed  that  Sparta  was  prompted  by  a  secret 
enmity,  he  adopted  the  deceitful  arts  usually  employed  against 
an  enem.y.  He  ordered  the  work  on  the  wall  to  be  stopped 
before  the  eyes  of  the  Spartan  envoys.  He  then  suggested 
that  a  special  embassy  of  three  persons,  of  which  he  would  be 
one,  be  sent  to  Sparta  to  make  negotiations  regarding  the  mat- 
ter. He  then  hastened  to  Sparta,  but  instructed  his  two  col- 
leagues—  one  of  whom  was  Aristides  —  to  delay  as  long  as 
possible,  and  to  push  forward  with  all  speed  the  work  of 
building  the  walls.  While  he  was  dallying  with  the  Spartan 
ephors,  and  complaining  of  the  delay  of  his  colleagues,  the 
whole  population  of  Attica — men,  women,  and  children  — 
were  toiling  day  and  night  to  complete  the  walls,  using  in  their 
extremity  even  tombstones  and  the  debris  of  ruined  temples. 
At  last,  when  the  walls  were  of  sufficient  height  to  protect  the 
city,  Themistocles  boldly  declared  the  truth,  and  assured  the 
Spartans  that  the  fortifications  had  been  built,  not  only  for 
the  security  of  Athens,  but  for  the  safety  of  all  Greece. 


204 


THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 


The  Fortification  of  the  Piraeus. — Now  that  the  walls  of 
the  city  were  completed,  Themistocles  turned  his  attention  to 
the  new  harbor  which  he  had  designed  before  the  last  Persian 
invasion.  This  new  harbor,  the  Piraeus,  .was  about  four  and  a 
half  miles  from  Athens,  and  could  not  well  be  inclosed  within 
the  same  walls.  A  new  and  strong  line  of  works  was  now 
thrown  about  the  Piraeus;  and  to  an  impregnable  city  was 
added  an  impregnable  harbor.  At  this  port  grew  up  a  com- 
mercial  population  —  merchants,    sailors,  resident   foreigners 


The  Pir^us,  the  Port  of  Athens  (Restoration) 

who  carried  on  trade.     The  Piraeus  thus  became  a  suburb  of 
Athens,  and  an  important  commercial  center. 

Completion  of  the  Work  of  Themistocles.  —  The  elevation  of 
Athens  to  a  position  in  which  she  might  become  the  independ- 
ent ruler  of  the  sea,  was  the  last  great  work  of  Themistocles. 
This  was  entirely  in  line  with  the  policy  that  marked  his  whole 
career  —  the  policy  of  a  wise  patriot,  a  military  genius,  and  a 
far-seeing  statesman.  By  means  of  a  commanding  influence, 
which  excited  the  admiration  of  his  countrymen,  and  also  by 
means  of  craft  and  cunning  which  laid  him  open  to  the  con- 
demnation of  his  enemies,  he  constantly  labored  for  the  great- 
ness of  Athens.     To  him  more  than   to  any   other  man   did 


THE   GROWTH   OF  THE   ATHENIAN   EMPIRE  205 

Greece  owe  her  deliverance  from  the  domination  of  Persia; 
and  upon  the  foundations  which  he  laid  was  built  the  Athenian 
empire. 

When  in  a  few  years  his  common  enemies  at  Athens  and 
Sparta  gained  the  upper  hand,  he  was  driven  into  exile;  he 
was  hunted  from  the  land  he  had  saved ;  and  at  last  he  was 
obliged  to  find  a  refuge  among  his  enemies  in  Persia.  In  spite 
of  the  many  stories  told  about  his  acts  of  bribery  and  his 
apparent  sympathy  with  the  Persian  king  and  his  acceptance 
of  Persian  honors,  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  he  ever, 
even  in  his  exile,  raised  his  hand  against  the  cause  of  Greece. 

II.    Aristides  and  the  Confederacy  of  Delos 

Liberation  of  the  ^gean  Cities.  —  The  further  growth  of  Athens 
is  seen  in  the  freeing  of  the  ^gean  cities  from  the  Persian 
authority,  and  their  union  into  a  maritime  confederacy.  Dur- 
ing the  Persian  wars,  most  of  the  cities  of  the  ^gean  —  those 
upon  the  islands  as  Well  as  those  upon  the  Asiatic  coast  —  had 
lost  their  independence,  and  were  now  struggling  to  regain 
their  freedom.  To  Sparta  it  seemed  best  not  to  continue  the 
war  against  Persia,  but  to  invite  the  oppressed  people  to  for- 
sake their  homes  and  come  to  Greece,  where  they  could  find  new 
settlements.  But  Athens  desired  to  complete  the  war  of  liber- 
ation, and  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to  the  Greeks  of  the  ^gean. 
Sparta  reluctantly  acceded  to  this  policy.  As  Sparta  was  still 
the  nominal  head  of  Greece,  the  fleet  was  placed  under  the 
command  of  Pausanias,  the  victor  at  Platsea.  The  Athenian 
division  was  commanded  by  Aristides,  with  whom  was  associ- 
ated Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades.  The  fleet  first  sailed  south 
to  the  island  of  Cyprus,  the  most  important  stronghold  of  Per- 
sia in  the  Mediterranean,  and  many  of  the  cities  there  were  set 
free.  Turning  to  the  north,  Pausanias  besieged  Byzantium, 
which  was  soon  reduced.  The  work  of  liberation,  so  well 
begun,  was  interrupted  by  the  treacherous  conduct  of  the 
Spartan  commander. 


206  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

Treachery  of  Pausanias.  —  With  the  spoils  of  Byzantium  in 
his  hands,  Pausanias  showed  that  he  was  at  heart  more  of 
a  Persian  than  a  Greek.  He  threw  aside  the  restraints  of 
Spartan  discipline,  and  assumed  the  dress  and  manners  of  a 
Persian  satrap.  Oriental  luxury  seemed  to  him  more  attract- 
ive than  Greek  simplicity.  He  even  offered  to  ally  himself 
with  the  Persian  king,  and  to  betray  into  his  hands  the  states 
of  Greece.  The  victor  of  Platsea  thus  became  a  traitor  to 
his  country.  Despised  by  his  fleet,  he  was  recalled  to  Sparta. 
After  a  time,  when  the  evidence  of  his  guilt  became  clear  and 
he  was  about  to  be  arrested,  he  sought  refuge  in  the  temple  of 
Athena.  But  this  did  not  protect  him  from  the  vengeance  of 
the  people.  The  doors  of  the  temple  were  closed  by  a  wall, 
and  the  traitor  was  starved  to  death. 

Aristides  the  Commander  of  the  Fleet.  —  The  treason  of  Pau- 
sanias led  to  a  new  step  in  the  growth  of  Athenian  suprem- 
acy. AVhen  the  officers  of  the  Grecian  fleet  at  Byzantium 
compared  the  treacherous  and  brutal  conduct  of  Pausanias 
with  the  upright  character  of  Aristides  they  with  one  ac- 
cord offered  the  command  to  the  Athenian  admiral.  Sparta, 
in  a  short  time,  sent  a  new  commander ;  but  he  was  not  recog- 
nized, and  he  returned  with  his  vessels  to  Greece.  By  obtain- 
ing the  chief  command  of  the  Grecian  fleet,  Athens  acquired 
the  supreme  control  of  the  sea.  Sparta  withdrew  from  the 
leadership  which  she  had  nominally  held  since  the  Congress  of 
Corinth  (see  page  185) ;  and  she  relapsed  into  her  former  position 
as  simply  the  head  of  the  Peloponnesian  league. 

Formation  of  the  Delian  Confederacy.  —  The  time  was  now  ripe 
for  the  formation  of  a  new  confederacy  under  the  leadership  of 
Athens.  The  chief  duty  of  organizing  the  new  league  fell  to 
Aristides,  the  commander  of  the  fleet.  He  formed  alliances 
with  the  cities,  not  only  on  the  islands,  but  also  on  the  Asiatic 
coasts,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  union  to  resist  the  Persian 
power.  All  members  of  the  confederacy  were  to  be  equal; 
they  were  to  send  delegates  to  a  common  congress ;  and  they 
were  to  furnish  ships  or  money  for  the  common  cause.     The 


THE    GROWTH   OF  THE   ATHENIAN  EMPIRE  207 

confederacy  was  to  be  a  perpetual  union  ;  and  no  member  could 
withdraw  without  the  consent  of  the  others.  The  island  of 
Delos,  the  seat  of  the  shrine  of  Apollo,  was  selected  as  the 
place  where  the  common  meetings  were  to  be  held,  and  where 
the  common  treasury  was  to  be  established.  The  assessments 
for  the  treasury  were  intrusted  to  Aristides,  in  whose  justice 
all  had  confidence.  The  confederacy  of  Delos  was  essentially 
an  Ionian  league,  under  the  leadership  of  Athens ;  and  it  was 
an  offset  to  the  Dorian  league  of  the  Peloponnesus  under  the 
leadership  of  Sparta.  Henceforth  the  interests  of  Athens  and 
of  Sparta  became  more  and  more  opposed  to  each  other;  and 
they  came  to  be  recognized  as  the  two  rival  powers  of  Hellas. 
The  Character  of  Aristides.  —  The  formation  of  the  Delian 
confederacy  was  preeminently  the  work  of  Aristides.  It  is  a 
question  whether  any  other  statesman  of  Greece  could  have 
brought  about  this  result.  To  no  one  else  were  the  allies  so 
willing  to  intrust  their  cause.  He  won  the  respect  of  all  his 
contemporaries,  and  received  the  title  of  "  the  Just."  It  is  a 
mistake  to  suppose  that  he  was  in  sympathy  with  the  aristoc- 
racy. While  he  was  a  conservative,  he  was  a  friend  of  the 
people,  and  no  one  was  more  thoroughly  a  patriot.  He  moved 
forward  when  the  interests  of  Greece  required  it.  He  may 
not  have  had  the  great  genius  and  adroit  skill  of  Themisto- 
cles;  but  he  was  a  man  whose  character  is  a  shining  light  in 
the  ancient  world. 

III.    CiMON  AXD  THE  Growth  of  Imperialism 

The  Leadership  of  Cimon.  —  The  man  who  now  came  to  the 
front  in  Athens  was  Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltiades.  He  had  not 
only  shared  with  Aristides  the  command  of  the  allied  fleet ;  he 
had  also  shared  with  him  the  confidence  of  the  allied  states. 
He  was  well  qualified  to  take  the  lead  in  the  further  develop- 
ment of  Athenian  power.  He  was  a  soldier  of  the  first  rank ; 
and  he  used  his  ability  to  enlarge  and  make  strong  the  newly 
formed  confederacy.  The  policy  of  Athens  under  Cimon  is 
morey's  greek  hist.  — 13 


208  THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 

seen  in  the  steps  by  which  the  confederacy  of  Delos  was  grad- 
ually changed  into  an  empire  —  by  which  the  allies,  instead  of 
being  the  equal  members  of  a  league,  became  the  subjects  of 
an  imperial  city. 

Extension  of  the  Confederacy.  —  The  first  great  ambition  of 
Cimon  was  to  bring  all  the  cities  of  the  ^gean  within  the 
Delian  league.  He  proceeded  to 
Thrace  and  freed  many  cities  on  that 
coast.  He  reduced  the  rocky  island 
of  Scyros,  where  a  nest  of  pirates 
threatened  the  commerce  of  Athens ; 
and  he  planted  upon  it  a  colony  of 
Athenian  citizens.  But  his  greatest 
military  achievement  was  the  defeat  of 
the  land  and  naval  forces  of  Persia 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eurym- 
CiMON  (So-called)  edon  in  southern  Asia  Minor  (466  b.c.  ; 

From  a -em  ^^ap,  page  137).     This  double  victory 

insured  the  freedom  of  the  cities  of  Caria  and  Lycia,  on  the 
Asiatic  coast,  and  thus  added  to  the  strength  of  the  confederacy. 
The  Policy  of  Coercion.  —  But  while  Athens  was  thus  liber- 
ating those  cities  which  wished  her  protection,  she  was  also 
drawn  into  the  policy  of  coercing  those  cities  which  did  not 
wish  her  protection.  For  example,  the  island  of  Naxos,  which 
had  voluntarily  joined  the  league,  desired  to  be  independent, 
and  seceded  from  the  confederacy  (466  b.c).  But  it  was  com- 
pelled by  force  of  arms  to  return  to  its  allegiance.  Another 
example  may  be  seen  in  the  case  of  Thasos,  also  a  member 
of  the  league.  The  Thasians  complained  that  Athens  was 
encroaching  upon  their  commercial  interests,  and  revolted; 
and  they  even  called  upon  Sparta  for  assistance.  But  the 
allied  fleet  under  Cimon  reduced  the  island  to  submission 
(463  B.C.).  The  tendency  of  this  policy  of  coercion  was  to 
change  the  allied  cities  into  subjects,  and  to  make  Athens 
not  merely  the  leader  of  a  confederacy,  but  the  sovereign  of 
an  empire. 


THE   GROWTH   OF   THE  ATHENIAN   EMPIRE  209 

Enmity  between  Sparta  and  Athens.  —  During  the  Thasian 
revolt  we  can  see  the  bitter  feeling  which  was  growing  up 
between  the  two  rival  powers  of  Greece.  The  Spartans,  al- 
though at  peace  with  Athens,  secretly  prepared  an  expedition 
to  send  into  Attica,  as  a  diversion  in  favor  of  the  Thasians. 
This  hostile  and  treacherous  design  was  not  executed,  on  ac- 
count of  a  terrible  earthquake  at  Sparta  and  a  general  revolt 
of  the  Spartan  helots.  The  Spartan  army  was  thus  compelled 
to  remain  at  home  to  crush  this  dangerous  revolt,  which  at 
last  became  so  formidable  that  the  Spartans  were  forced  to 
call  upon  Athens  for  help.  Whether  Athens  should  give  aid 
to  Sparta,  was  now  the  burning  question  before  the  Athenian 
assembly.  The  new  leaders  of  the  democracy,  Ephialtes  and 
Pericles,  were  utterly  opposed  to  helping  a  city  which  had 
already  proved  itself  faithless.  But  Cimon  espoused  the  cause 
of  Sparta,  and  through  his  influence  an  army  was  sent  to  aid 
in  putting  down  the  revolt.  That  Cimon  was  wrong  and 
his  opponents  were  right  became  evident  when  the  Spartans, 
jealous  and  suspicious,  dismissed  the  Athenian  army  with  the 
curt  remark  that  its  services  were  no  longer  needed.  This  piece 
of  effrontery  served  to  widen  the  breach  between  these  rival 
states. 

The  party  of  Cimon,  which  had  favored  the  cause  of  Sparta, 
lost  its  influence ;  and  Cimon  himself  was  ostracized  (461  B.C.). 
In  the  same  year  in  which  Cimon  was  exiled,  the  chief  leader 
of  the  democratic  party,  Ephialtes,  was  assassinated.  By  the 
removal  of  these  two  party  chiefs,  Pericles  became  the  leading 
man  in  Athens. 

IV.   Pericles  and  the  Athexiax  Empire 

Pericles  and  his  Policy.  —  Under  Pericles  Athens  reached 
its  highest  power  and  glory.  In  his  character  this  great 
man  united  many  of  the  best  qualities  of  his  predecessors, — 
the  skillful  statesmanship  of  Themistocles,  the  patriotic  spirit 
and  democratic  sympathies  of  Aristides,  the  military  accom- 


210 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


Pericles 


plishments  and  imperial  ambition  of  Cimon.      But  he  added 
to  these  the  power  of  persuasive  eloquence,  which  made  him 

the  foremost  orator  of  his  day, 
and  gave  him  ahnost  absolute 
control  over  the  Athenian  as- 
sembly. His  political  policy 
was  to  extend  and  secure  the 
imperial  power  of  Athens,  and 
to  make  it  the  foremost  city 
of  the  world. 

The  Building  of  the  Long 
Walls.  —  Pericles  followed  the 
policy  of  Themistocles  in  seek- 
ing iirst  of  all  to  make  Athens 
an  impregnable  city.  The  for- 
tifications erected  by  Themis- 
tocles about  Athens  and  about 
the  Piraeus  had  created  two 
Pericles  desired  to  unite  these 
two  places  by  one  system  of  defensive  works,  and  -thus  to 
prevent  Athens  from  being  cut  off  from  her  harbor  and  from 
the  rest  of  the  world.  This  defensive  system  may  have  been 
begun  by  Cimon  ;  but 
it  was  completed  by 
Pericles.  One  of  the 
new  walls,  the  south- 
ern, ran  from  the  city 
to  the  Bay  of  Phale- 
rum ;  and  another,  the 
northern,  ran  to  the 
harbor  of  the  Piraeus. 
In  a  few  years  a  third 
and  middle  wall  was 
erected  near  and  par- 
allel to  the  northern  one,  the  two  together  being  known  as  the 
"  Long  Walls."     These  formed  a  wide  and  secure  avenue  from 


separate  centers  of  defense. 


SARONTC 


The  Walls  of  Athens 


THE   GROWTH  OF  THE  ATHENIAN  EMPIRE  211 

the  city  to  the  Piraeus.  Athens  and  the  Piraeus  were  thus 
united  in  a  single  fortified  area,  which  formed  a  military  and 
naval  base  of  operations  for  the  whole  empire. 

Extension  of  the  Athenian  Power.  —  It  was  a  part  of  the 
policy  of  Pericles  to  extend  the  influence  of  Athens  upon  the 
land  as  well  as  upon  the  sea,  and  thus  to  make  Athens 
the  head  of  a  continental  as  well  as  a  maritime  league.  The 
first  step  in  this  direction  was  taken  as  the  result  of  an  alliance 
which  had  already  been  formed  by  Athens  with  Argos  and 
Megara.  Tliis  alliance  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  neighbor- 
ing Dorian  states,  Corinth  and  ^gina ;  a  war  followed,  and 
^gina  was  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  tributary  state. 
The  next  step  was  the  result  of  an  attempt  made  by  Sparta 
to  settle  a  dispute  between  Phocis  and  Doris.  This  brought 
on  a  war  between  Athens,  on  the  one  side,  and  Sparta  and 
Boeotia,  on  the  other.  After  two  engagements  —  at  Tan'agra 
(457  B.C.)  and  at  (Enoph'yta  (456  e.g.;  map,  page  214)  — 
Phocis  and  Locris  became  the  willing  allies  of  Athens,  and 
Doris  and  Boeotia  (except  Thebes)  were  compelled  to  join  the 
new  continental  league.  By  these  two  movements  the  Athenian 
power  was  extended  over  the  most  of  central  Greece. 

Culmination  of  the  Athenian  Empire.  —  At  the  same  time  that 
Athens  was  gaining  new  allies  on  the  land,  she  was  also 
obtaining  greater  power  over  her  allies  upon  the  sea.  The 
members  of  the  Delian  confederacy  were  at  first  expected 
simply  to  furnish  ships  and  sufficient  money  to  maintain  the 
fleet.  Soon  they  were  inclined  to  make  their  contributions 
entirely  in  money,  while  retaining  their  independence.  After- 
ward the  contributions  were  regarded  as  tribute  due  to 
Athens,  which  Athens  had  a  right  to  collect.  Again,  it  was 
at  first  expected  that  the  affairs  of  the  confederacy  were  to 
be  managed  by  a  congress  of  delegates,  meeting  at  Delos  ; 
but  the  allies  soon  regarded  these  meetings  as  irksome,  and 
the  political  control  of  the  confederacy  gradually  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Athens.  Finally,  the  common  treasury  was 
transferred  from  Delos  to  Athens  (about  454  B.C.).     By  these 


212  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

steps  the  political  and  financial  administration  of  the  league 
became  centralized  in  Athens  ;  and  the  Delian  confederacy 
became  transformed  into  an  Athenian  empire.  Of  all  mem- 
bers of  the  original  confederacy,  only  three  —  Chios,  Lesbos, 
and  Samos  —  were  allowed  to  retain  their  position  as  equal 
and  independent  allies. 

Restoration  and  Death  of  Cimon.  —  After  the  empire  was  finally 
established,  Cimon,  who  had  been  recalled  from  his  banishment, 
recovered  for  a  brief  time  his  influence  over  the  Athenian 
assembly ;  and  his  policy  again  found  favor  with  the  people. 
His  policy  involved  peace  with  Sparta  and  war  with  Persia. 
A  Five  Years'  Truce  was  accordingly  formed  between  Athens 
and  Sparta  (450  b.c),  by  which  each  jjarty  agreed  to  respect 
the  rights  and  possessions  of  the  other.  Cimon  then  set  out 
on  a  new  expedition  against  Cyprus,  in  which  island  Persia 
was  now  attempting  to  reestablish  her  authority.  This  expedi- 
tion resulted  in  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Persians,  and  also 
in  the  death  of  Cimon  (449  B.C.).  It  is  said  that  Cimon  con- 
cluded a  treaty  of  peace  with  Persia ;  but  concerning  this  there 
is  much  doubt.  With  the  death  of  Cimon,  Pericles  regained 
his  previous  position  as  the  ruling  spirit  of  Athens. 

Survey  of  the  Athenian  Empire.  —  This  point  of  time  marks 
the  limit  reached  by  Athens  in  the  development  of  her  impe- 
rial policy.  Her  whole  dominion  comprised  an  empire  upon 
the  land  and  an  empire  upon  the  sea.  (1)  The  land  empire 
comprised  the  most  important  states  of  European  Greece 
outside  of  the  Peloponnesian  league,  including  Megaris, 
Boeotia,  Phocis,  Doris,  East  Locris,  Thessaly,  Naupac'tus  in 
West  Locris,  and  some  of  the  cities  of  Argolis  and  Achaia,  — 
to  which  should  be  added  the  islands  Zacynthus  and  Cephal- 
lenia  in  the  Ionian  Sea.  (2)  The  maritime  empire  comprised 
all  the  important  islands  of  the  ^gean  Sea,  as  well  as  the 
Greek  cities  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  Thrace,  which 
had  been  recovered  from  Persia. 

For  administrative  purposes  all  the  maritime  cities  —  except 
those  of  Lesbos,  Chios,  and  Samos  —  were   grouped   in   five 


THE   GROWTH   OF   THE   ATHENIAN  EMPIRE  213 

great  tributary  districts ;  the  first  comprising  the  islands  of  the 
central  and  western  ^gean  from  Imbros  to  the  Cyclades, 
including  ^gina  and  Euboea;  the  second,  the  cities  on  the 
Thracian  coast,  including  also  the  island  of  Thasos ;  the  third, 
the  cities  surrounding  the  Propontis ;  the  fourth,  those  along 
the  Ionian  coast ;  and  the  fifth,  those  along  the  shores  of 
Caria  and  Lycia.  In  these  five  districts  were  more  than  two 
hundred  and  sixty  cities  that  paid  tribute  to  Athens.  The 
population  of  the  whole  empire  has  been  estimated  at  about 
two  millions  (Holm,  II.,  223)  ;  but  the  data  upon  which  this 
estimate  is  made  are  very  uncertain. 

Failure  of  the  Imperial  Policy  of  Athens.  —  The  wonderful 
energy  which  Athens  displayed  at  this  time  is  evident  when 
we  consider  that,  within  a  period  of  thirty  years,  she  had  re- 
covered all  the  ^gean  cities  lost  during  the  Persian  wars,  and 
had  established  her  authority  over  a  large  part  of  European 
Greece.  But  her  ambitious  policy  to  maintain  an  empire 
upon  the  land  proved  a  failure.  She  was  soon  beset  with 
difficulties  and  afflicted  with  reverses,  which  weakened  her 
influence  among  her  continental  allies.  News  had  already 
come  that  a  fleet  of  two  hundred  vessels,  sent  some  time 
before  to  free  Egypt  from  Persia,  had  been  annihilated 
(454  B.C.).  Sparta  still  claimed  the  right  to  interfere  in  the 
affairs  of  central  Greece.  Boeotia  opposed  the  effort  to  establish 
democratic  governments  within  her  borders,  and  defeated  the 
Athenians  in  a  battle  at  Chaerone'a  (446  B.C.)  The  spirit  of 
revolt  extended  to  other  cities  ;  and  one  after  another  the 
Athenian  land  allies  renounced  their  allegiance.  Under  these 
depressing  circumstances  Pericles  concluded  a  Thirty  Years' 
Truce  with  Sparta  (445  b.c),  by  which  Athens  gave  up  her 
claims  to  the  Peloponnesian  cities,  and  each  party  was  re- 
stricted to  its  present  possessions.  Although  obliged  to  give 
up  her  land  empire,  Athens  still  maintained  her  supremacy 
upon  the  sea,  and  still  retained  her  position  as  the  foremost 
leader  of  Greek  democracy  and  the  highest  representative  of 
Greek  culture. 


raooREss 


E   T^IA^T*    JSTo.V. 


TRIBUTARY  STATES   OF  THE   ATHENIAN  EMPIRE 

The  following  table  gives  a  list  of  the  tributary  states  that  paid  annu- 
ally more  than  one  talent,  arranged  by  tributary  districts  :  — 

I.  Island  District.  —  ^gina,  Ceos,  Cythnos,  Siphnos,  Paros,  Naxos, 
Tenos,  Andros,  Carystus  and  Chalcis  in  Eubcea,  and  Hephsestia  in 
Lemnos. 
II.  Thracian  District.  —  Peparethus,  Methone,  ^nea,  Potidsea,  Mende, 
Scione,  Spartolus,  Olynthus,  Galepsus,  Torone,  Singus,  Acanthus, 
Abdera,  Maronea,  ^nos,  Thasos,  Samothrace. 

III.  Hellespontine  District. — Perinthus,  Selymbria,  Byzantium,  Chalce- 

don,  Cyzicus,  Proconnesus,  Lampsacus,  Arisbe,  Abydos,  Tenedos. 

IV.  Ionian  District.  —  Myrina,    Cyme,  Phocsea,   Clazomense,  Erythrae, 

Teos,  Colophon,  Ephesus,  Miletus. 
V.    Carian  District.  —  Halicarnassus,  Ceramus,  Cnidus,  Chersonesus  in 
Caria,  Calynda,  Phaselis,  Cos,  Astypalsea ;  also  Camirus,  lalysus, 
and  Lindus  in  the  island  of  Rhodes. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  above  tributary  states  arranged  according 
to  the  amount  of  their  annual  tribute  :  30  talents,  iEgina,  Thasos ;  16^ 
talents,  Paros  ;  15  talents,  Abdera,  Byzantium  ;  12  talents,  Lampsacus  ; 
10  talents,  ^nos,  Chalcis,  Perinthus ;  9  talents,  Chalcedon,  Cyme,  Cyzi- 
cus ;  7  talents,  Erythrse  ;  6f  talents,  Naxos ;  6  talents,  Andros,  Ephesus, 
lalysus,  Camirus,  Lindus,  Potidsea,  Samothrace,  Scione,  Teos,  Torone; 
5  talents,  Carystus,  Cos,  Mende,  Miletus,  Selymbria ;  4  talents,  Abydos, 
Ceos ;  3  talents,  JEnea,  Acanthus,  Chersonesus  in  Caria,  Hepheestia, 
Cnidus,  Cythnos,  Methone,  Peparethus,  Phaselis,  Proconnesus,  Siphnos, 
Tenedos,  Tenos  ;  2  talents,  Arisbe,  Olynthus,  Phocsea,  Singus,  Sparto- 
lus;  if  talents,  Halicarnassus ;  i^  talents,  Astypalsea,  Galepsus,  Calynda, 
Ceramus,  Clazomense,  Colophon,  Maronea,  Myrina.  (Cf.  Beloch,  Grie- 
chische  Geschichte,  Ed.  1893,  I.,  402.) 

The  wliole  number  of  tributary  states  was  as  follows  :  Island  District, 
41 ;  Thracian  District,  68  ;  Hellespontine  District,  50  ;  Ionian  District, 
42  ;  Carian  District,  62 ;  undetermined,  4 ;  total,  267.  (Cf.  Boeckh, 
Staatshaushaltung  der  Athener,  Ed.  1886,  11. ,  362-369.) 


216 


THE  ATHENIAN  CONSTITUTION  UNDER  PERICLES      217 


SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Cox,  Ch.  8,  "  Growth  of  the  Athenian  Empire  "  (10)  .1 

Timayenis,  Vol.  L,  Fart  IV.,  "The  Athenian  Ascendency"  (11). 

Oman,  Ch.  23,  "Building  up  of  the  Athenian  Empire";  Ch.  24, 
"  Athens  at  the  Height  of  her  Power"  (10). 

Smith,  Ch.  23,  "  Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Athenian  Empire  "  (10). 

Allcroft,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  8,  "  Rise  of  Athens";  Ch.  9,  "Athens  a  Terri- 
torial Power"  ;  Ch.  10,  "  Athens  under  Pericles"  (10). 

Curtius,  Vol.  II.,  Bk.  III.,  Ch.  2,  "Growth  and  Power  of  Athens"; 
Ch.  3,  "The  Years  of  Pericles"  (11). 

Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  14,  "  Pericles  to  the  Thirty  Years'  Truce"  (11). 

Plutarch,  "  Cimon,"  "Pericles"  (13)/ 

Aristotle,  Athenian  Constitution,  rfis.  23-27  (Ephialtes  and  Pericles) 
(13). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  Confederacy  of  Delos.  — Oman,  pp.  241,  242  (10)  ;  Smith,  Ch. 
22,  §6  (10)  ;  Cox,  Ch.  7  (10)  ;  Abbott,  Vol.  IL,  Ch.  8  (11)  ;  Bury,  Ch.  8, 
§2  (10)  ;  Allcroft,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  91-104,  139-151  (10)  ;  Curtius,  Vol.  IL, 
pp.  376-385,  430-432  (11)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  IL,  Ch.  17  (11)  ;  Greenidge,  pp. 
189-204  (20)  ;  Gilbert,  pp.  416-434  (20). 


CHAPTER   XVII 

THE   ATHENIAN  CONSTITUTION   UNDER  PERICLES 

I.     The  Political  Organization 

Character  of  the  Athenian  Democracy.  —  As  the  civilization  of 
Athens  reached  its  highest  development  during  the  age  of 
Pericles,  we  should  review  its  principal  features  before  we 
consider  the  causes  which  led  to  its  decline.  First  of  all, 
we  may  look  at  the  constitution  of  the  state  as  it  existed  at 
this  time.      We  have  already  seen  the  gradual  tendency  of 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


218  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

Athens  toward  popular  government  —  in  the  decline  of  the 
monarchy,  in  the  growth  of  the  archonship,  in  the  extension 
of  the  franchise  by  Solon,  and  in  the  radical  reforms  of 
Clisthenes.  And  this  popular  tendency  had  continued  since 
the  time  of  Clisthenes.  Ephialtes  had  taken  away  the  ancient 
privileges  of  the  Areopagus  ;  and  Pericles  had  induced  the 
people  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  exercise  of  their  political 
duties,  by  introducing  a  system  of  payment  for  public  service. 

By  the  term  "  democracy,"  the  Athenians  understood  a  state 
in  which  all  the  powers  of  government  are  exercised  directly 
by  the  citizens,  and  in  which  all  citizens  are  equal  before  the 
law.  The  Athenian  idea  of  democracy  differed  from  the 
modern  idea  chiefly  in  two  ways :  first,  in  that  the  Athenians 
had  very  little  notion  of  the  modern  idea  of  representation ; 
and  second,  in  that  the  number  of  citizens  formed  a  com- 
paratively small  part  of  the  whole  population. 

Classes  of  the  Population.  —  We  may  get  an  idea  of  the 
limited  nature  of  the  Athenian  democracy  by  looking  at  the 
different  classes  of  persons  residing  in  Attica,  which  formed 
the  territory  of  the  Athenian  city  state.  These  persons  com- 
prised the  slaves,  the  resident  foreigners  or  "  metics,  "  and  the 
citizens. 

1.  The  slaves  of  Attica  have  been  estimated  at  about  100,000 
(Gilbert,  p.  170).  They  included  captives  taken  in  war  and 
persons  imported  from  the  slave  markets  on  the  Thracian 
and  Scythian  coasts.  Their  lot  was  not  especially  wretched. 
They  were  employed  in  domestic  and  agricultural  labor,  and 
were  even  allowed  to  work  for  themselves  on  consideration  of 
paying  their  master  a  yearly  sum.  The  state  sometimes 
employed  slaves  as  policemen  and  clerks.  The  slave,  how- 
ever, had  no  political  or  civil  rights,  although  he  might  be 
protected  from  the  cruelty  of  his  master,  and  in  grave  emer- 
gencies might  serve  in  the  army  and  the  fleet. 

2.  The  resident  foreigners,  or  "  metics,"  numbered  perhaps 
10,000.  These  persons  were  engaged  mostly  in  trade,  and 
formed  a  valuable  part  of  the  population.     But  they  had  no 


ATHENIAN   CONSTITUTION  UNDER  PERICLES         219 

share  in  the  government.  They  could  not  hold  land  in  Attica. 
They  were  obliged  to  pay  a  yearly  tax  and  sometimes  to  serve 
in  the  army  and  navy ;  for  example,  as  shield-bearers  or 
rowers.  Every  resident  foreigner  was  bound  to  choose  a 
citizen  to  represent  and  protect  his  interests. 

3.  The  class  of  citizens  formed  the  rest  of  the  population  of 
Attica.  The  early  policy  of  admitting  foreigners  to  citizenship 
was  changed  by  Pericles,  who  restricted  citizenship  to  those 
who  were  born  of  an  Athenian  father  and  an  Athenian  mother. 
The  whole  number  of  Athenian  citizens,  including  men,  women, 
and  children,  was  at  the  time  of  Pericles  in  the  neighborhood 
of  120,000.  Of  this  population  the  number  of  voters  is  gener- 
ally estimated  as  about  30,000.  This  comparatively  small  body 
of  persons,  scattered  through  the  local  districts  —  that  is,  the 
tribes  and  demes  —  of  Attica,  formed  the  democracy. 

The  Athenian  Assembly,  or  Ecclesia.  —  The  most  important 
political  body  in  the  state  was  the  ecclesia,  or  general  assembly 
of  the  people.  It  consisted  of  the  whole  body  of  male  citizens 
above  eighteen  years  of  age.  It  met  forty  times  each  year  on 
the  Pnyx  —  a  sloping  hill  backed  by  a  perpendicular  rock, 
where  was  located  the  hema,  the  stone  platform  upon  which 
the  orators  stood  to  address  the  people.  The  assembly  was  the 
ultimate  source  of  political  authority.  Here  any  citizen  could 
speak  and  vote  upon  questions  properly  submitted  by  the 
council ;  but  proposals  thus  submitted  could  be  passed,  rejected, 
or  amended  by  vote  of  the  assembly.  Any  citizen  could  pro- 
pose a  measure  by  first  submitting  it  to  the  council.  But  it 
was  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  constitution  that  the  mover  of 
a  resolution  was  held  responsible  for  the  measure  which  he 
proposed  —  a  provision  painfully  illustrated  in  the  case  of  Mil- 
tiades  (see  page  181).  The  vote  in  the  assembly  was  generally 
taken  by  a  show  of  hands  ;  although  the  ballot  was  used  when 
the  welfare  of  an  individual  was  at  stake.  The  assembly  was 
often  brought  under  the  power  of  some  influential  man,  whose 
character  and  oratorical  ability  enabled  him  to  sway  the  multi- 
tude and  to  become  the  "leader  of  the  people,"  or,  as  Aris- 


220 


THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 


The  Bema  on  the  Pnyx 


toph'anes  puts  it,  "  the  master  of  the  stone  on  the  Pnyx." 
And  so  Thucyd'ides  describes  Athens  at  the  time  of  Pericles 
as  "a  democracy  ruled  by  its  ablest  citizen." 

The  Athenian  Council,  or  Boule.  —  Since  the  decline  of  the 
Areopagus,  the  most  important  political  body  after  the  assembly 
was  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred.  This  consisted  of  fifty 
members,  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  chosen  annually  by  lot 
from  each  of  the  ten  local  tribes.  In  other  words,  the  council 
was  composed  of  ten  sections,  each  one  being  made  up  of  fifty 
members  from  a  single  tribe.  The  business  of  the  council  was  to 
preside  over  the  affairs  of  the  state.  But  for  convenience,  each 
tribal  section  of  fifty  was  authorized  to  preside  in  turn  during 
a  tenth  part  of  the  year,  the  order  of  their  turns  being  decided 
by  lot.  The  members  of  the  presiding  section  were  called 
pryt'anes  ;  the  period  for  which  they  served,  the  pryt'any  ;  and 
the  public  building  in  which  they  lived,  the  Prytane'um.  The 
presiding  section  chose  each  day  by  lot  one  of  their  number  as 
president,  who  was  chairman,  not  only  of  the  council,  but  also 


ATHENIAN   CONSTITUTION  UNDER   PERICLES         221 

of  the  assembly.  The  council  exercised  the  highest  adminis- 
trative and  executive  powers  in  the  state.  It  prepared  the 
measures  to  be  submitted  to  the  assembly.  It  could  itself 
pass  ordinances,  provided  they  did'not  conflict  with  the  exist- 
ing laws.  It  had  charge  of  the  public  buildings,  festivals,  and 
religious  ceremonies.  It  had  control  of  the  public  finances. 
It  saw  that  the  laws  of  the  state  were  carried  into  execution; 
and  in  certain  exceptional  cases  it  exercised  judicial  functions. 

The  Athenian  Magistrates;  the  Generals. — As  the  decline  of 
the  Areopagus  was  followed  by  the  growing  importance  of  the 
council,  so  the  decline  of  the  archonship  was  attended  by  the 
growth  of  the  ''  generalship  "  as  an  executive  office.  The  ten 
strategi,  or  generals,  came  to  be  the  most  important  magistrates 
in  the  government.  They  were  at  first  probably  elected  one 
from  each  tribe;  but  afterward  they  were  all  elected  by  the 
whole  assembly  without  regard  to  tribes.  On  account  of  the 
fact  that  they  required  a  special  kind  of  ability,  they  were 
elected,  not  by  lot,  but  by  the  vote  of  the  citizens.  The  first 
duty  of  the  generals  was  to  command  the  army,  but  to  this 
were  added  other  functions.  They  had  charge  of  the  means 
for  defending  the  state  —  the  maintenance  of  the  fortifications, 
the  army,  and  the  navy.  They  also  had  charge  of  foreign 
affairs,  the  negotiation  of  treaties,  and  the  receiving  of  ambas- 
sadors. They  furthermore  had  the  power  to  call  extra  sessions 
of  the  assembly,  if  in  their  judgment  the  public  interests 
required  it. 

Besides  the  generals  there  were  a  large  number  of  subordinate 
magistrates,  civil  and  military,  that  need  not  be  named  here.^ 

The  Athenian  Courts ;  the  Dicasteries.  —  One  of  the  most 
peculiar  features  of  the  Athenian  constitution  was  the  organi- 
zation of  the  courts.  The  old  council  of  the  Areopagus 
retained  a  certain  jurisdiction  over  some  grave  offenses,  like 
murder  and  arson.  But  the  great  majority  of  judicial  cases 
were  tried  by  jurors  drawn  from  the  body  of  citizens,  and  from 

1  For  the  Athenian  magistrates,  see  Gilbert,  Constitutional  Antiquities, 
pp.  214-265. 


222  THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 

these  courts  there  was  no  appeal.  The  whole  jury  list 
(helioea)  was  made  up  of  six  thousand  citizens,  at  least  thirty 
years  of  age,  who  each  year  voluntarily  presented  themselves 
before  the  archon  and  took  an  oath  to  perform  their  duties 
faithfully.  This  whole  judicial  body  was  divided  into  ten 
sections,  or  dicasteries  of  five  hundred  members  each  —  leav- 
ing a  thousand  supernumeraries  who  could  be  drawn  upon 
when  necessary.  The  jurors  serving  on  a  single  case  were 
drawn  from  these  sections,  and  might  number  two  hundred  or 
more  for  a  single  case.  From  the  time  of  Pericles  the  jurors 
received  a  small  pay  for  their  services.  The  business  of  the 
courts  was  prepared  by  the  three  senior  archons;  while  the 
six  junior  archons  {thesmothetce)  formed  a  sort  of  board  of 
revision  by  which  the  harmony  of  the  laws  was  preserved. 
The  popular  character  of  the  Athenian  courts  shows  the  ex- 
treme democratic  principles  which  controlled  the  state,  since 
an  opportunity  was  given  to  every  citizen  at  some  time  to 
share  in  the  administration  of  justice. 

PoHtical  Parties  at  Athens.  —  The  growth  of  the  Athenian 
democracy,  like  that  of  every  popular  government,  was  marked 
by  the  development  of  parties  and  of  factional  strife.  We  have 
already  seen,  from  very  early  times,  political  divisions  between 
different  portions  of  the  people,  —  for  example,  the  Eupatrids 
and  the  common  people ;  and  the  men  of  the  Hill,  the  Plain, 
and  the  Shore.  But  from  the  time  of  Clisthenes,  there  had 
come  to  be  two  quite  well-defined  political  parties,  the  demo- 
cratic and  the  oligarchical.  The  democratic  party  was  in 
favor  of  the  new  constitution,  with  the  popular  changes  brought 
about  by  Clisthenes,  Ephialtes,  and  Pericles  ;  it  was  eminently 
the  patriotic  party  of  Athens,  opposed  to  foreign  influences, 
whether  Spartan  or  Persian.  The  oligarchical  party,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  opposed  to  the  constitution,  which  had  de- 
prived its  members  of  their  old  exclusive  privileges;  it  was  in 
S3mipathy  with  the  aristocratic  ideas  of  Sparta,  and  did  not 
hesitate  sometimes  to  take  the  part  of  Persia.  Between  these 
two  extreme  parties,  there  was  what  may  be  called  a  moderate 


ATHENIAN   CONSTITUTION  UNDER   PERICLES        223 

party,  less  defined  than  the  others,  which  did  not  oppose  the 
democratic  constitution  so  much  as  it  did  the  policy  of  the 
democratic  leaders.  The  strife  between  these  parties  was 
allayed  for  a  time  by  the  overpowering  influence  of  Pericles, 
only  to  break  out  again,  as  we  shall  see,  during  and  after  the 
Peloponnesian  war. 


II.   The  Military  Organization 

Composition  of  the  Army. — The  defense  of  the  Athenian 
state  against  its  foreign  enemies  required  an  efficient  military 
organization.  The  army,  like  the  gov- 
ernment, was  based  upon  democratic 
principles.  Every  young  man  at  the  age 
of  eighteen  was  enrolled,  and  took  his 
oath  of  allegiance  as  a  citizen  and  a 
soldier.  For  two  years  he  was  engaged 
in  military  training  —  when  it  was  not 
customary  for  him  to  attend  the  assem- 
bly. From  twenty  to  fifty,  he  was  liable 
to  be  called  upon  to  serve  in  the  field, 
wherever  and  whenever  the  state  re- 
quired it.  After  fifty  until  sixty,  he 
was  called  upon  to  serve  only  in  Attica 
and  for  the  defense  of  Athens.  The 
army  when  called  into  the  field  consisted 
of  the  heavy-armed,  the  light-armed,  and 
the  cavalry.  The  heavy-armed  troops, 
or  hoplites,  which  formed  the  main  body 
of  the  army,  were  drawn  from  the  three  upper  census  classes 
(see  page  127),  and  were  armed  with  the  shield,  helmet,  breast- 
plate, greaves,  sword,  and  spear.  The  light-armed  troops  were 
drawn  from  the  fourth  or  lowest  class,  and  did  not  have 
the  complete  defensive  armor  of  the  hoplites,  and  sometimes 
fought  with  bows  and  arrows.  The  cavalry  consisted  of  the 
wealthier  citizens  who  could  furnish  a  horse ;  but  this  branch 


Greek  Hoplite 


224  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

of  the  service,  though  highly  respected,  was  never  very  efficient 
in  Greece,  on  account  of  the  mountainous  character  of  the 
country.  The  Greeks  sometimes  used  war  chariots,  but  not  to 
the  same  extent  as  the  Eastern  nations. 

The  Greek  Phalanx.  —  When  a  levy  was  to  b^  made  for  a  mili- 
tary expedition,  the  ten  local  tribes  would  be  called  upon  to 
furnish  their  respective  quotas.  The  men  thus  called  into  the 
field  would  be  organized  into  "  phalanxes."  The  phalanx  was 
a  military  body  quite  peculiar  to  the  Greeks.  It  consisted  of 
from  two  thousand  to  four  thousand  men,  drawn  up  in  a  solid 
body,  eight  ranks  deep,  under  its  own  commander.  It  was 
organized  into  a  number  of  divisions  and  subdivisions,  each 
under  its  own  officers.  The  phalanx  was  the  basis  of  all  tactics, 
or  military  evolutions.  It  was  usually  arranged  in  the  form 
of  a  rectangle  —  sometimes,  however,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent, 
and  sometimes  in  Ihe  form  of  a  wedge.  The  Greeks  X->ossessed 
great  skill  in  maneuvering  —  in  wheeling  to  the  right,  to  the 
left,  and  to  the  rear,  and  in  changing  from  the  order  of  march 
to  the  order  of  battle.  The  Greek  phalanx  was  afterward 
used  by  the  Macedonians,  and  was  the  most  effective  of  ancient 
military  organizations  before  the  time  of  the  Romans. 

The  Athenian  Fleet.  —  As  Athens  was  preeminently  a  sea 
power,  her  main  strength  lay  in  her  fleet.  At  the  time  of 
Pericles  the  fleet  consisted  of  three  hundred  vessels,  always 
ready  for  the  sea,  and  about  one  hundred  select  ships  held  in 
reserve  to  defend  the  Piraeus.  The  war  vessel  of  this  period 
was  a  ship  of  three  banks  of  oars,  called  the  trireme.  Each 
vessel  was  commanded  by  a  trierarch,  and  carried  about  two 
hundred  men.  Besides  the  officers  there  were  ten  heavy-armed 
marines,  sixty-two  men  who  worked  the  uppermost  bank  of 
oars,  fifty -four  the  middle  bank,  and  fifty-four  the  lowest  bank. 
The  success  of  the  naval  battle  depended  largely  upon  the 
skill  of  the  oarsmen;  the  effort  was  made  to  run  down  and 
disable  the  opposing  vessels  rather  than  to  board  them.  In 
the  exceptional  case  of  boarding,  the  marine*  were  called  into 
action.     By  its  efficient  organization  the  Athenian  navy  in  the 


ATHENIAN  CONSTITUTION  UNDER   PERICLES         225 

time  of  Pericles  commanded  the  eastern  Mediterranean  and 
was  the  great  bulwark  of  the  empire. 

III.    The  Financial  System 

The  Athenian  Money.  —  To  manage  the  revenues  and  expendi- 
tures of  the  state,  as  well  as  to  facilitate  the  trade  between  the 
people,  it  was  necessary  to  adopt  some  kind  of  financial  system. 
And  this  system  in  turn  required  some  kind  of  money  by 
which  values  could  be 
measured.  The  Athenian 
money  consisted  chiefly 
of  silver  —  although  gold 
and  copper  were  used  to 
some   extent.     The  chief 

coin  w^as  the  silver  drach- 

-11  Attic  Drachma 

ma,  which  contained  about 

sixty-seven  grains  of  silver.  The  other  coins  were  the  obol, 
one  sixth  the  value  of  the  drachma;  the  mina,  one  hundred 
times  more  valuable ;  and  the  talent,  which  was  sixty  times 
as  valuable  as  the  mina.  The  following  table  shows  the  rela- 
tion of  these  coins  to  one  another,  giving  also  a  rough  estimate 
of  their  values  in  terms  of  our  money  ^ :  — 

6  obols  =  1  drachma  (nearly  20  cents). 
100  drachmas  =  1  mina  (nearly  20  dollars). 
60  minas  =  1  talent  (nearly  1200  dollars). 

The  Expenses  of  the  State.  —  The  administration  of  the  public 
finances  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  council.  Although  a 
regular  annual  estimate  of  the  public  expenses  was  not  made, 
we  may  distinguish  the  following  chief  items  of  expenditure : 
(1)  Religion,  which  included  the  cost  of  public  sacrifices  and 

1  The  purchasing  power  of  money  was  much  greater  in  ancient  than  in  mod- 
ern times.  Boeckh  estimates  that  the  annual  expenses  —  including  food, 
clothing,  and  habitation  —  of  an  average  family  of  four  persons  would  amount 
to  about  four  hundred  drachmas  (about  $80),  or  that  of  one  person  to  about 
one  hundred  drachmas  (about  $20).     (Public  Economy  of  Athens,  p.  109.) 


226  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

festivals.  (2)  Civil  service,  that  is,  the  pay  given  to  the 
dicasts  (one  or  two  obols  a  day),  to  the  members  of  the  coun- 
cil (about  a  drachma  a  day),  to  the  citizens  attending  the 
ecclesia  (one  obol  a  day,  afterward  raised  to  nine  obols),  and  to 
the  public  magistrates.  (3)  Army  and  navy,  which  were  main- 
tained in  times  of  peace,  and  which  required  extraordinary  out- 
lays in  time  of  war.  (4)  Public  buildings,  which  required  a 
specified  sum  for  annual  repairs,  and  extraordinary  sums  of 
money  for   the   erection   and   decoration   of   new   structures. 

(0)  Public  bounties,  including  the  theor'icon  paid  to  poorer  citi- 
zens for  attending  public  entertainments,  and  pensions  paid  to 
the  orphans  of  deceased  soldiers,  to  destitute  invalids  and 
cripples,  and  sometimes  to  poor  citizens  in  the  form  of 
gratuitous  distribution  of  grain. 

Ordinary  Revenues. — The  expenses  of  the  state  were  met 
by  what  we  may  distinguish  as  ordinary  and  extraordinary 
revenues.  The  ordinary  revenues  were  derived  chiefly  from 
the  following  sources:  (1)  The  tribute,  which  was  raised 
from  the  members  of  the  confederacy,  and  which  varied  in 
total  amount  from  460  talents,  the  earliest  assessment,  to  1200 
talents,  the  assessment  during  the  early  years  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War.  (2)  Rent  from  state  property,  especially  from 
the  silver  mines  of  Laurium.  (3)  Duties  on  goods  exported 
and  imported  at  the  Piraeus.  (4)  Taxes  laid  upon  goods  sold 
in  the  market,  and  also  upon  every  resident  foreigner  for  the 
protection  given  him  by  the  state. 

Extraordinary  Revenues.  —  There  were  also  certain  extraordi- 
nary sources  of  revenue,  which  may  be  arranged  as  follows : 

(1)  Voluntary  contributions,  which  were  invited  by  a  decree 
of  the  assembly  to  meet  the  unusual  expenses  of  war.  (2)  In- 
come tax,  imposed  in  times  of  war,  and  graded  according  to 
the  wealth  of  the  citizens.  (3)  Ship  money,  which  was  imposed 
upon  certain  private  individuals,  each  one  of  whom  was  obliged 
to  equip  a  trireme,  with  the  privilege  of  commanding  it;  in 
later  times  this  obligation  might  be  divided  between  two  or 
more  citizens. 


ATHENIAN   CONSTITUTION  UNDER   PERICLES         227 

With  such  a  financial  system  Athens  was  able  to  maintain 
its  government,  to  provide  for  the  common  defense,  and  also  to 
adorn  the  city  so  that  it  became  the  art  center  of  Greece,  and 
in  fact  of  the  world. 

SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Allcroft,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  11,  "  Constitutional  Development  in  Athens  "  (10). i 
Bury,  Ch.  9,  §  1,  "Completion  of  the  Athenian  Democracy  "  (10). 
Curtius,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  486-501,  "Pericles  and  the  Democracy"  (11). 
Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  16,  "  Athens  under  Pericles  ;   the  Government  of  the 

City"  (11). 
Grote,  Part  II.,  Ch.  46,    "Constitutional  and  Judicial  Changes  under 

Pericles"  (11). 
Greenidge,  Ch.  6,  "Democracy"  (20). 
Abbott,  Pericles,  Ch.  16,  "The  Athens  of  Pericles;  the  Government" 

(27). 
Whibley,  Political  Parties,  Ch.  1,  "Athenian  Constitution  and  Empire" 

(20). 
Gilbert,  pp.  214-310,  "Organs  of  Administration"  (20). 
Freeman,  pp.  107  et  seq.,  "The  Athenian  Democracy"  (12), 

SPECIAL   STUDY 

The  Athenian  Dicasteries.  —  Allcroft,  Vol.  II,,  pp.  134-136  (10); 
Abbott,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  400-404  (11)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  II.,  p.  198  (11)  ;  Cur- 
tius, Vol.  II.,  pp.  495-498  (11)  ;  Greenidge,  pp.  174-178  (20)  ;  Gilbert, 
pp.  391-416  (20);  Smith,  Diet.  Antiq.,  "  Dicasts "  (18);  Schomann, 
Antiquities,  pp.  465-493  (20)  ;  Aristotle,  Ch.  03  (13). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


morey's  greek  hist.  —  14 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

ATHENS  AND   ATHENIAN   ART  UNDER  PERICLES 
I.   The  Topography  of  Athens 

Athens  as  a  Center  of  Art.  —  The  greatest  interest  which  we 
have  to-day  in  Athens  is  due  not  to  the  fact  that  she  became 
the  ruler  of  an  empire,  or  even  to  the  fact  that  she  was  the 
promoter  of  democratic  institutions.  As  an  imperial  ruler  she 
was  far  outstripped  by  Rome ;  and  her  democratic  institutions 
have  been  greatly  improved  upon  by  modern  states.  But  in 
the  domain  of  art  she  has  been  without  a  peer.  Her  temples, 
though  in  ruins,  and  her  statues,  though  mutilated,  reveal  to 
us  a  sense  of  beauty  and  an  aesthetic  taste  to  which  we  can 
find  no  parallel  in  any  other  people.  And  the  highest  point  of 
this  kind  of  culture  she  reached  during  the  time  and  under 
the  influence  of  Pericles.  It  is,  therefore,  to  Athens  as  the 
center  of  art  that  we  must  look  if  we  would  find  one  of  the 
most  important  sources  of  her  influence  upon  the  world. 

Limits  and  Divisions  of  the  City.  —  Before  considering  some 
of  the  principal  works  of  Athenian  art,  we  may  glance  for  a 
moment  at  the  city  itself,  which  these  works  were  intended  to 
adorn  and  beautify.  With  the  Acropolis  as  its  center,  the 
limits  of  the  city  had  been  gradually  widening  from  the  earli- 
est times.  At  the  time  of  the  Persian  wars,  the  ''  old  line  " 
of  the  city  had  been  reached.  With  the  building  of  the  new 
wall  of  Themistocles,  the  circumference  of  the  city  was  en- 
larged to  five  or  six  miles.  During  the  times  of  Cimon  and 
Pericles  the  city  was  still  further  extended  by  the  erection  of 
the  Long  Walls  so  as  to  take  in  the  Piraeus.  To  make  the 
entire  circuit  of  the  city  walls  at  this  time  would  require  a 
journey  of  perhaps  twenty  miles.     The  population  of  Athens  at 

228 


ATHENS  AND   ATHENIAN  ART   UNDER   PERICLES     229 


Plan  of  Athens,  Time  of  Pericles 


the  time  of  Pericles  is  variously  estimated  at  from  120,000  to 
190,000,  four  fifths  of  whom  were  slaves.  In  the  city  proper 
we  find  certain  districts  or  wards,  which  correspond  to  the 
demes  of  Attica.  To  the  northwest,  within  the  Dip'ylon  Gate, 
the  chief  entrance  to  the  city,  was  the  section  called  the  Inner 
Cerami'cus,  and  thus  distinguished  from  the  neighboring  out- 
lying district  called  the  Outer  Ceramicus.  Other  districts  of 
the  city  were  Mel'ite  to  the  west,  Cydathense'um  and  Limnse 
to  the  south,  Diome'a  and  Col'lytus  to  the  east  and  north  — 
each  marked  by  its  own  peculiar  topographical  features. 

The  Hills  of  Athens.  —  In  taking  a  general  view  of  Athens, 
the  hills  first  attract  our  attention.  The  most  important  of 
these  is,  of  course,  the  Acropolis.  This  is  a  pinnacle  of  solid 
limestone  rock,  rising  abruptly  to  the  height  of  two  hundred 
feet,  with  a  length  of  about  a  thousand  feet.  It  was  in  more 
than  one  sense  the  highest  part  of  Athens ;  it  was  not  only  the 
most  elevated  spot  of  land,  but  it  was  the  seat  of  the  highest 


230 


THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


religious  and  aesthetic  life  of  the  city.  Passing  by,  for  the 
present,  the  buildings  of  the  Acropolis,  we  notice  the  next  im- 
portant hill  to  the  west,  the  Areopagus.  This  was  the  place 
where  the  celebrated  council  of  the  same  name  held  its  ses- 
sions—  the  name  being  derived  from  the  tradition  that  Ares, 
who  had  murdered  the  son  of  Poseidon,  was  tried  on  this  spot. 
Still  farther  to  the  west  and  south  is  the  Pnyx,  the  hill  upon 
which  the  Athenian  assembly,  or  ecclesia,  held  its  meetings  (see 
page  219).  To  the  north  of  the  Areopagus  is  the  hill  of  Colo'- 
nus,"upon  which  is  located  the  so-called  These'um,  said  to  be 
to-day  the  best-preserved  temple  in  Greece.  This  was  formerly 
supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Cimon  to  receive  the  bones 
of  Theseus,  which  were  brought  from  the  island  of  Scyros. 
But  this  opinion  has  been  shown  to  be  groundless ;  it  is  now 
thought   to  have   been    dedicated    either  to   Heracles   or  to 

Hephaestus.  These  four 
hills  were  the  most  impor- 
tant in  Athens,  although 
there  were  others,  like  the 
hill  of  the  Nymphs  and 
the  Museum  hill,  which 
were  inclosed  within  the 
city  walls. 

The  Agora  and  its  Porti- 
coes. —  Closely  connected 
with  the  hill  of  Colonus 
and  the  Areopagus — ad- 
joining them  to  the  east 
and  extending  toward 
the   Acropolis  —  was  the 

Ag'ora,  the  great  public 

Sketch  of  the  Agora  i    i      i 

square,  or  market  place, 

and  the  busiest  spot  in  Athens.     Here  was  the  center  of  the 

political  and  commercial  life  of  the  city.     The  square  was 

shaded  by  the  foliage  of  plane  trees  and  lined  with  beautiful 

buildings  —  porticoes  or  porches,  inclosed  by  columns  and  form- 


ATHENS  AND   ATHENIAN  ART   UNDER   PERICLES     231 

ing  a  succession  of  colonnades.  Among  these  buildings  were 
the  Painted  Porch  {Sto'a  Poec'ile)  adorned  with  the  paintings 
of  Polygno'tus;  the  Royal  Porch  (Stoa  BasiVeos),  occupied  by 
the  king  archon;  the  porch  dedicated  to  Zeus  the  Deliverer 
(Stoa  Eleuthe'rios)  ;  the  shrine  of  the  Mother  (Metro'um),  where 
the  laws  and  archives  were  kept ;  and  the  Council  Hall 
(Buleute'riinn),  where  the  boule  held  its  meetings.  There  were 
many  other  buildings  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Agora  during  the 
time  of  Pericles,  and  still  others  added  afterward.^  Overlook- 
ing the  Agora,  perhaps  from  the  south,  stood  the  statues  of 
the  tyrannicides,  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton,  reminding  the 
people  of  their  deliverance  from  the  oppressive  rule  of  the 
Pisistratidse  (see  pages  197,  198). 

Other  Buildings  of  the  Lower  City.  —  If  we  leave  the  Agora 
and  proceed  around  the  base  of  the  Acropolis  on  the  north,  we 
come  to  the  Prytaneum,  the  chief  center  of  the  official  life 
of  Athens.  Passing  along  the  Street  of  the  Tripods,  to  the 
east  of  the  Acropolis  we  see  the  Ode'um,  or  the  Music  Hall  of 
Pericles,  erected,  it  is  said,  in  imitation  of  the  tent  of  Xerxes, 
and  used  for  musical  contests.  Farther  to  the  south  we  may 
see  the  great  theater  of  Dionysus,  which  we  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  notice  again.  At  some  distance  from  the  Acropolis 
to  the  southeast,  we  may  see  the  unfinished  remains  of  the 
Olympic 'um,  the  great  temple  dedicated  by  Pisistratus  to  the 
Olympian  Zeus,  but  not  completed  until  centuries  afterward 
by  the  Roman  Emperor  Hadrian.  The  abandonment  of  this 
temple  immediately  after  the  overthrow  of  the  hated  Pisistrat- 
idse shows  the  influence  which  the  political  prejudices  of  the 
people  often  exercised  upon  the  growth  of  art.  We  shall  see 
other  evidences  of  the  way  in  which  architecture  was  affected 
by  the  conservative  and  the  progressive  ideas  of  the  time,  when 
we  study  the  buildings  on  the  Acropolis. 

1  It  is  impossible  to  g^ive  an  accurate  restoration  of  the  buildings  in  the 
Agora.  For  attempts  in  this  direction  see  maps  in  the  following  works : 
Harrison,  Monuments  of  Athens,  p.  5;  Butler's  Story  of  Athens,  p.  313; 
Gardner,  Ancient  Athens,  opp.  p.  538. 


232 


THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


II.    The  Acropolis  and  its  Buildings 

The  Acropolis  before  Pericles.  —  The  art  of  Athens  reached 
its  highest  perfection  in  the  buildings  which  crowned  the 
Acropolis.  The  most  important  of  these  were  the  Par'the- 
non,  the  Propylse'a,  and  the  Erechthe'um.     By  looking  at  the 

circumstances    which 


Plan  of  the  Acropolis 


attended  the  erection 
of  these  buildings, 
we  may  obtain  a  new 
illustration  of  the 
progressive  policy  of 
Pericles.  Before  his 
time  there  had  already 
been  an  ancient  tem- 
ple on  the  summit  of 
the  Acropolis,  which 
was  destroyed  during 
the  Persian  wars.  This  old  temple  was  built  on  the  fabled 
spot  where  the  goddess  Athena  and  the  god  Poseidon  had  con- 
tended for  the  possession  of  Athens.  Here  was  the  sacred 
olive  tree  which  Athena  had  caused  to  rise  from  the  earth ; 
and  here  was  the  salt  spring  which  Poseidon  opened  by  a 
stroke  of  his  trident.  Here,  also,  rested  the  honored  bones  of 
Erech'theus,  the  hero  king  of  Athens,  whose  name  was  joined 
to  that  of  Poseidon.  Over  this  spot,  therefore,  had  been  erected 
two  shrines,  the  one  to  Athena,  and  the  other  to  Poseidon- 
Erechtheus.  These  shrines  were  covered  by  a  single  roof,  so 
that  the  "  old  temple  "  was  in  fact  a  double  temple.  AVhen 
this  temple  was  destroyed  by  the  Persians,  a  new  one  was 
planned  to  take  its  place,  not  however  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
old  building,  but  upon  a  fresh  spot  farther  to  the  south.  This 
was  also  intended,  it  is  believed,  to  be  a  double  temple  like 
its  predecessor,  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  both  Athena 
and  Erechtheus.  The  foundation  of  this  new  temple  is  gen- 
erally ascribed  to  Cimoii ;  but  it  was  more  likely  the  work 


ATHENS  AND  ATHENIAN  ART  UNDER   PERICLES     233 

of  Themistocles,  whose  fall  caused  it  to  be  temporarily  aban- 
doned. 

Building  of  the  Parthenon.  —  When  Pericles  came  into  power, 
he  desired  to  carry  ont  the  policy  of  his  great  predecessor, 
Themistocles.  The  conservative  party,  however,  was  opposed  to 
erecting  a  temple,  or  setting  up  the  ancient  olive  wood  image  of 
Athena,  in  any  other  place  than  upon  the  old  sacred  spot.     But 


\\  EST  Front  of  the  Parthenon  (Restoration) 

Pericles,  like  Themistocles,  was  not  bound  to  the  past;  he 
believed  that  the  gods  would  be  most  highly  honored  by  giving 
them  the  best  that  the  state  could  afford.  He  therefore  deter- 
mined to  build  a  splendid  temple  on  the  foundations  laid  by 
his  predecessor,  and  to  erect  within  it  a  new  and  magnificent 
statue  of  Athena.  On  the  advice  of  the  gifted  architect 
Icti'nus,  the  original  plan  of  the  temple  was  somewhat  changed, 
but  its  double  character  was  preserved.  The  eastern  part  was 
dedicated  to  Athena ;  and  in  it  her  new  statue  was  to  be  erected. 
The  conservative  party  insisted  that  the  worship  of  Erechtheus, 
at  least,  might  remain  in  the  old  place.  Pericles  acceded  to  their 


234  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

desire ;  and  so  the  western  part  of  the  new  building  became, 
not  a  shrine  to  Erechtheus  as  originally  intended,  but  a  second 
chamber  of  the  goddess,  where  her  robe  was  woven  by  Athe- 
nian maidens  {parthenoi).  The  word  Parthenon  was  originally 
applied  to  this  chamber ;  but  it  was  soon  extended  to  the  whole 
building,  which  was  called  the  temple  of  Athena  Parthenos,^  or 
the  Virgin  Goddess.  The  building  was  constructed  of  Pentelic 
marble,  in  the  Doric  style  refined  by  Attic  taste,  of  the  most 
exquisite  proportion  and  symmetry,  and  ever  since  admired  by 
artists  and  critics  as  the  finest  example  of  classic  architecture. 
(For  plan  of  Parthenon,  see  page  155.) 

Construction  of  the  Propylaea.  —  The  next  great  architec- 
tural work  of  Pericles  was  the  construction  of  the  Propylaea, 
the  magnificent  entrance  to  the  Acropolis.  Before  this  time 
Cimon,  who  had  built  the  south  wall  of  the  Acropolis,  had 
provided  for  an  entrance;  but  this  seemed  to  Pericles  entirely 
unworthy  of  the  sacred  citadel.  With  the  aid  of  the  architect 
Mnes'icles,  the  whole  western  end  of  the  Acropolis  was  changed 
into  an  immense  portico,  constructed  like  the  front  of  a  temple 
with  columns  and  pediment.  In  the  Propylaea  we  find  the  Doric 
and  Ionic  styles  united  for  the  first  time,  the  front  and  rear 
parts  being  supported  by  Doric  columns,  and  the  central  pas- 
sageway by  Ionic  columns.  The  whole  effect  of  this  great 
portal  was  beautiful  and  imposing. 

South  of  the  Propylsea  was  a  little  temple  dedicated  to  Athena 
Ni'ke,  popularly  called  Ni'ke  Ap'teros.  This  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Cimon  to  celebrate  his  victory  over  the  Persians 
at  the  river  Eurymedon  (see  page  208).  Although  it  encroached 
upon  the  architect's  plan  of  reconstructing  the  whole  front  of 
the  Acropolis,  it  was  permitted  to  remain  at  the  urgent  request 
of  its  priestly  guardians. 

The  Erechtheum.  — The  respect  which  Pericles  was  willing  to 
pay  to  the  conservative  feeling  of  the  time  is  shown  not  only 

1  On  this  subject  of  the  construction  of  the  Parthenon,  see  Furtwangler, 
Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture,  Appendix;  also  Harrison,  Mythology  and 
Monuments  of  Ancient  Athens,  Ch.  5,  "Phidias  and  the  Parthenon." 


ATHE^^S  AND  ATHENIAN  ART  UNDER   PERICLES     235 

in  the  preservation  of  the  temple  to  Nike,  but  also  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Erechtheum  on  the  site  of  the  "  old  temple.'' 
There  were  many  who  still  had  a  reverence  for  the  sacred 
spots  near  this  ruined  building.  Some  of  these  spots  were 
beyond  the  area  of  the  old  building.     To  bring  these  places 


POBCH  OF  THE  MAmENS  (CARYATIDES) 


under  a  single  roof  required  a  unique  plan,  the  most  irregular 
of  all  the  temples  of  Greece.  Notwithstanding  its  lack  of  sym- 
metry, the  whole  structure  was  one  of  great  beauty  and  rich- 
ness of  detail.  The  western  end  is  flanked  by  two  porches, 
the  one  facing  to  the  north  and  supported  by  Ionic  columns, 
the  other  facing  to  the    south   and    supported   by   uniquely 


236 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


carved  female  figures  (Caryat'ides)  and  called  the  "  Porch  of  the 
Maidens."  This  building  was  probably  not  completed  until 
after  the  time  of  Pericles. 

In  these  buildings  —  the  Parthenon,  the  Propylaea,  and  the 
Erechtheum  —  the  Acropolis  not  only  showed  the  civilizing 
policy  of  Pericles  and  the  artistic  skill  of  Greek  architects, 
but  also  expressed  the  highest  religious  aspirations  of  the 
Athenian  people.  It  showed  how  closely  art  was  joined  to 
religion,  and  that  the  city  was  adorned  for  the  glory  of  the 
gods  as  well  as  for  the  honor  of  the  state.     (See  frontispiece.) 

III.   Athenian  Sculpture  and 
Painting 

The  Statues  of  the  Acropolis.  —  The 

sculpture  of  Athens,  like  its  architec- 
ture, was  seen  in  its  perfection  on 
the  Acropolis.  In  the  development  of 
this  kind  of  art,  we  see  everywhere 
the  influence  of  Phid'ias,  the  most  re- 
nowned of  Greek  artists.  The  works 
which  he  did  not  execute  himself  were 
generally  made  under  his  direction. 
We  may  first  notice  his  three  great 
statues  of  Athena.  (1)  The  first  of 
these  was  the  bronze  colossal  statue 
of  Athena  Prom'achus,  or  the  Pro- 
tector, which  stood  between  the  Pro- 
pylaea and  the  Parthenon,  towering  so 
high  that  the  top  of  the  gilded  spear 
could  be  seen  by  mariners  from  the  sea. 
This  statue,  which  is  described  by  ancient  authors  as  grand 
and  imposing,  has  never  been  successfully  restored.  (2)  Next 
was,  the  ivory  and  gold  statue  of  Athena  Parthenos,  the  Virgin 
Goddess,  which  stood  in  the  great  hall  of  the  Parthenon.  It 
was  about  forty-seven  feet  high  including  the  pedestal.     Two 


Athena  Parthenos 


ATHENS  AND   ATHENIAN  ART   UNDER   PERICLES     237 

small  copies  of  this  statue  have  been  preserved  (3)  The  third 
was  the  bronze  statue  of  the  Lemnian  Athena  —  so  called  be- 
cause it  was  a  gift  from  the  people  of  Lemnos.  It  is  described 
by  ancient  authors  as  the  most  beautiful  of  the  works  of  Phid- 
ias. Although  the  original  has  been  lost,  the  figure  has  been 
restored  by  means  of  marble  copies  of  the  head  and  the  body, 
which  have  been  adjusted  to  each  other. 


The  "Three  Fates"  from  the  Parthenon  Pediment 

The  Parthenon  Pediments.  —  The  eastern  and  western  pedi- 
ments of  the  Parthenon  were  filled  with  two  remarkable 
groups,  the  former  representing  the  birth  of  Athena,  and  the 
latter  the  contest  of  Athena  and  Poseidon  for  the  soil  of 
Attica.  Nothing  but  fragments  of  these  figures  remain  ;  but 
even  in  their  ruin  they  have  been  called  "  the  sublimest  crea- 
tions of  Greek  art  that  have  escaped  annihilation  "  (Tarbell). 
They  are  wonderful  reproductions  of  the  human  form  in 
action  and  in  repose,  and  show  surpassing  skill  in  the  man- 
agement of  drapery. 

The  Parthenon  Frieze.  —  Scarcely  less  remarkable  were  the 
extensive  array  of  reliefs  which  decorated  the  inner  frieze 
surrounding  the  Parthenon.  These  represented  the  Pan- 
athenaic  procession,  which  on  the  birthday  of  Athena  con- 


238  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

veyed  the  peplos,  or  robe  of  the  goddess,  from  the  outer  Cer- 
amicus  through  the  streets  of  Athens  to  her  temple  on  the 
Acropolis.  This  frieze  contained  a  vast  variety  of  figures 
—  prancing  horses  held  in  check  by  the  steady  hand  of  their 
riders,  elderly  men  bearing  olive  branches  and  preceded  by 
flute  players,  chariots   occupied  by  armed  warriors,  beautiful 


l^ 


-\ 


maidens  and  dignified  magistrates,  a  group  of  Olympian  di- 
vinities, and  many  other  subjects.  The  total  length  of  this 
frieze  was  more  than  five  hundred  feet,  and  it  was  elevated 
about  forty  feet  from  the  pavement  of  the  temple.  Lord  Elgin, 
by  permission  of  the  Turkish  government,  removed  about  half 
of  these  reliefs,  with  other  sculptures  from  the  Parthenon,  to 
the  British  Museum,  where  they  are  now  deposited  under  the 
name  of  the  "  Elgin  Marbles." 

Other  Specimens  of  Relief.  —  The  metopes  of  the  outer  Par- 
thenon frieze  were  filled  with  small  groups  in  high  relief, 
representing  many  mythological  subjects.  These  were  in  har- 
mony with  the  idea  of  decoration  which  had  been  employed 
in  the  earlier  Doric  temples.     But  there  was  another  interest- 


ATHENS  AND   ATHENIAN   ART  UNDER   PERICLES     239 

ing  form  of  relief  carving  ex- 
isting at  this  time  which  we 
should  notice ;  namely,  that 
placed  upon  the  gravestones 
in  the  cemetery  outside  the 
Dipylon  Gate.  Here,  even  in 
the  presence  of  death,  we  may 
see  the  same  calmness  of  mind 
that  formed  one  of  the  distin- 
guishing features  of  the  high- 
est Athenian  art.  Upon  these 
marbles  we  see  depicted  no 
violent  expressions  of  grief, 
but  peace  mingled  with  sad- 
ness—  repose  in  the  midst  of 
sorrow. 

Athenian  Painting.  —  It  is 
impossible  for  us  to  form  a 
very  clear  idea  of  the  progress 
made  in  painting  during  this  time;  because  this  art  is  less 
durable  than  that  of.  sculpture.  But  we  know  from  the  works 
of  classic  authors  that  painting  had  made  considerable  prog- 
ress. The  colors,  however,  were  still  put  on  in  flat  tints,  with- 
out shading.  The  great  painter  of  this  period  was  Polygnotus. 
He  was  born  in  the  island  of  Thasos,  but  came  to  Athens  and 
is  said  to  have  been  made  an  Athenian  citizen.  His  most 
famous  works  were  placed  upon  temples,  stoas,  and  other  pub- 
lic buildings,  especially  the  Painted  Porch  (Stoa  Poecile)  and 
the  Propylaea.  His  subjects  were  mostly  mythological  and 
historical  scenes. 


Grave  Relief 


IV.   Influence  of  Athenian  Art 

Art  in  Other  Parts  of  Greece.  —  Although  Athens  was  the 
highest  center  of  Greek  art,  there  were  other  cities  not  far 
behind  her  in  art  culture.     This  was  due  both  to  the  direct 


240 


THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


influence  of  Athenian  artists,  and  also  to  the  spirit  of  rivalry 
which  existed  in  other  places.  Phidias  assisted  in  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  famous  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia.  His  statue 
of  the  Olympian  Zeus  was  regarded  by  many  as  his  master- 
piece and  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  The  statue 
represented  the  father  of  the  gods  seated  upon  a  throne,  and 
ruling  the  world  in  calm  majesty.  It  was  forty  feet  high 
and  wrought,  like  the  Athena  of  the  Parthenon,  in  ivory  and 
gold.  This  sublime  work  of  art  has  been  lost,  and  not  even 
an  adequate  copy  of  it  remains,  although 
attempts  have  been  made  to  repro- 
duce it  from  the  description  of  ancient 
writers. 

Art  in  Argos.  —  Another  center  of 
Greek  art  was  Argos,  which  was  the  seat 
of  a  school  which  nearly  equaled  that  of 
Athens.  The  great  master  of  this  school, 
and  hence  the  chief  rival  of  Phidias,  was 
Polycli'tus.  Like  Phidias  he  wrought 
statues  in  ivory  and  gold,  and  though 
they  lacked  the  majesty  of  the  great 
works  of  Phidias,  they  were  unsur- 
passed in  their  artistic  beauty.  He 
was  especially  successful  in  molding  the 
human  form,  and  in  giving  to  his  fig- 
ures the  appearance  of  natural  grace 
and  repose.  The  Wounded  Amazon  is 
often  referred  to  as  an  example  of  his 
style,  although  it  can  not  be  absolutely 
identified  as  his  work. 
Art  in  Thrace.  —  The  influence  of  Grecian  art  may  be  seen 
even  in  the  remote  city  of  Monde  in  Thrace.  Here  flourished 
the  sculptor  Paeo'nius.  From  the  little  information  we  have, 
we  should  judge  that  his  works  were  almost  equal  to  those 
of  the  more  renowned  artists  of  Athens  and  Argos.  His 
chief  work,  which  has  been  found  at  Olympia,  represents  a 


Wounded  Amazon 

(Style  of  Polyclitus) 


ATHENS  AND  ATHENIAN    ART   UNDER   PERICLES     241 


Winged  Victory  floating  in  the  air  with  her  drapery  blown  by 
the  breeze  —  a  figure  bold  in  design  and  beautiful  in  execution, 
and  combining  in  a  remark- 
able degree  the  qualities 
of  movement  and  repose. 

These  examples  must 
suffice  to  illustrate  the 
great  superiority  of  Greek 
art  in  its  highest  form,  as 
contrasted  with  the  more 
ancient  art  of  the  East, 
which  it  superseded.  In 
place  of  the  grotesque,  the 
monstrous,  the  realistic, 
and  often  repulsive  figures 
of  the  Orient,  we  here  see 
forms  of  symmetry,  of 
proportion,  and  of  ideal 
beauty,  which,  whether 
expressed  in  architecture 
or  in  sculpture,  have  fur- 
nished to  the  world  the 
highest  models  of  taste.  Victory  of  PjiONius  (Restored) 


SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Allcroft,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  13,  "The  Imperial  City  "  (10). i 

Abbott,  Pericles,  Ch.  17,  "  The  Athens  of  Pericles"  (27). 

Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  20,  "Athens  under  Pericles"  (11). 

Mahaffy,  Rambles,  Ch.  4,  "The  Acropolis  of  Athens"  (21). 

Smith,  Ch.  34,  "Athens,  and  Athenian  Art  during  the  Period  of  her 

Empire"  (10). 
Bury,  Ch.  9,  §  6,  "The  Restoration  of  the  Temples"  (10). 
Curtius,  Vol.  II., pp.  592-641,  "Athens  the  Center  of  Intellectual  Life" 

(11). 
Dyer,  Ch.  5,  "  Athens  from  the  Time  of  Themistocles  "  (19). 


1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


242  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

Butler,  Chs.  7,  8,  "The  Golden  Age"  (19). 

Tarbell,  Ch.  8,  "The  Great  Age  of  Greek  Sculpture  "  (19). 

Gardner,  Handbook,  Ch.  3,  "The  Fifth  Century  "  (19). 

SPECIAL    STUDY 

The  Parthenon.  —  Smith,  pp.  394-395  (10);  Tarbell,  pp.  190-199 
(19)  ;  Gardner,  Ancient  Athens,  Ch.  7  (19)  ;  Butler,  pp.  209-223  (19)  ; 
Harrison  and  Verrall,  §  18  (19)  ;  Furtwangler,  Appendix,  pp.  423- 
442,  451-468  (19)  ;  Stuart  and  Revett,  pp.  47-56  (19). 


CHAPTER   XIX 

INTELLECTUAL   CULTURE   IN  THE   AGE   OF  PERICLES 
I.    The  Theater  as  a  Means  of  Culture 

The  Theater  of  Dionysus.  —  The  greatness  of  Athens  during 
the  time  of  Pericles  is  seen  not  only  in  the  splendid  works  of 
art  which  adorned  the  city,  but  also  in  the  high  grade  of  intel- 
lectual culture  which  distinguished  the  Athenian  people.  One 
of  the  chief  centers  of  intellectual  life  was  the  theater.  This 
was  a  place  not  simply  for  amusement,  but  for  instruction,  and 
for  moral  and  religious  inspiration.  Athens  had  but  one 
place  where  dramatic  performances  were  placed  upon  the  stage 
—  the  theater  of  Dionysus.  It  was  situated  on  the  south- 
eastern slope  of  the  Acropolis,  and  was,  it  is  said,  capable  of 
seating  thirty  thousand  people,  or  the  whole  voting  population 
of  Attica.  The  performances  took  place  in  the  open  air  during 
the  festivals  of  Dionysus,  the  wine  god,  and  consisted  of  trage- 
dies, comedies,  satyric  dramas,  and  choral  hymns,  the  most 
important  of  these  being  the  works  of  the  great  tragedians. 
We  may  get  a  general  view  of  the  theater  by  looking  at  its 
different  parts  —  the  stage,  the  orchestra,  and  the  auditorium. 

The  Stage  and  the  Actors.  —  The  stage  was  erected  in  what 
appeared  to  be  a  separate  building,  presenting  an  architectural 


INTELLECTUAL  CULTURE  UNDER  PERICLES 


243 


The  Theater  of  Dionysus  (Restoration) 

front  to  the  audience.  It  consisted  of  (1)  an  elevated  platform 
{loghim),  upon  which  the  actors  played  their  parts,  and  (2)  of  a 
rear  wall  (scena),  which  furnished  the  background  of  the  play, 
representing  the  locality  where  the  action  was  supposed  to 
take  place.  The  number  of  professional  actors  in  a  play  was 
limited  to  three ;  but  this  did  not  limit  the  number  of  char- 
acters, as  the  same  actor  might  take  more  than  one  part.  Typi- 
cal characters  were  represented  by  masks,  which  covered  not 
only  the  face,  but  the  head  as  well.  To  increase  the  apparent 
size  of  the  actor  a  thick-soled  boot  (cothurnus)  was  worn.     The 


1  2^3 

Masks  used  in  Tragedy 
morey's  greek  hist. — 15 


244 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


costumes  were  similar  to  the  ordinary  Greek  dress,  but  more 
elaborate  in  style  and  color.  The  actor  was  paid  by  the  state, 
and  his  profession  came  to  be  an  honorable  one. 

The  Orchestra  and  Chorus.  —  In  front  of  the  stage  was  a  semi- 
circular, level  area,  called  the  orchestra,  set  apart  for  the  chorus. 
Its  central  position  suggests  to  us  the  time  when  the  chorus 
was  the  most  important  part  of  the  drama;  but  it  had  now 
come  to  be  subordinate  to  the  dialogue.  The  size  of  the  chorus 
was  now  reduced  from  the  original  number  of  fifty  to  twelve 
or  fifteen.  It  was  composed  of  men  or  boys,  hired  to  per- 
form this  subordinate  part  of  the  play.  The  words  of  the 
chorus  were  delivered  by  singing  or  by  recitation,  accompanied 
by  dancing  and  gesticulations,  —  all  of  which  was  intended  to 
interpret  the  thought  and  emotions  of  the  play. 

The  Auditorium  and  the  Audience.  —  Encircling  the  orchestra 
was  the  auditorium,  or  the  rising  tiers  of  seats  occupied  by 

the  spectators.  The  seats 
were  without  backs  except 
the  reserved  front  row, 
set  apart  for  distinguished 
persons,  the  most  honored 
seat  being  that  of  the 
priest  of  Dionysus.  The 
price  of  admission  to 
the  main  body  of  seats 
was  the  same  to  all  —  two 
obols  for  each  day's  per- 
formance. That  the  poor- 
est citizen  might  not  be 
excluded,  Pericles  pro- 
Seat  of  the  Priest  of  Dionysus  vided  that  the  admission 

fee  should  be  paid  by  the  state  to  any  person  applying  for  it. 
The  Athenian  audience  was  lively,  intelligent,  and  discrimi- 
nating, and  has  been  pronounced  to  be  "superior  to  any 
[other]  audience  of  the  same  size  which  has  ever  been  brought 
together"  (Haigh). 


WL 

ASv^^H 

■ 

^w 

^^>3%€B^^^K|^^H 

3 

INTELLECTUAL  CULTURE  UNDER  PERICLES  2J:5 

II.   The  Drama  and  the  Great  Tragedians 

The  Elevation  of  the  Drama.  —  There  were  several  causes 
which  tended  to  elevate  the  character  of  the  Greek  drama  at 
this  time.  The  high  artistic  taste  which  was  shown  in  the 
other  arts  had  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  art  of  dramatic 
composition.  Again,  the  fact  that  dramatic  performances  took 
the  form  of  contests,  in  which  a  number  of  competitors  — 
usually  three  —  strove  for  the  approval  of  the  audience  and 
for  the  prizes  awarded  by  official  judges,  tended  to  stimulate 
the  efforts  of  dramatic  writers.  Moreover,  the  drama  was  that 
form  of  literature  which  appealed  to  the  sympathies  of  the 
people ;  and,  in  the  form  of  tragedy,  it  responded  to  their  higher 
moral  and  religious  instincts.  Finally,  it  was  encouraged  by 
Pericles  himself,  who  looked  upon  it  as  a  means  of  public 
education  and  culture. 

From  ^schylus  to  Sophocles.  —  We  have  already  noticed  the 
origin  of  the  Greek  tragedy  and  the  heroic  character  that  it 
acquired  in  the  hands  of  ^schylus  (see  page  195).  Although 
.Eschylus  continued  to  write  during  the  early  part  of  this 
period,  he  yet  represented  the  older.spirit  born  of  the  Persian 
wars.  The  newer  spirit  was  embodied  in  Sophocles,  who  at  the 
age  of  twenty-eight  wrested  the  prize  from  .Eschylus,  and 
from  that  time  expressed  the  highest  dramatic  genius  of  the 
Greeks.  He  introduced  the  third  actor  upon  the  stage ;  and 
this  gave  greater  freedom  and  scope  to  dramatic  composition. 
He  also  gave  less  prominence  to  the  chorus,  which  be  used 
chiefly  to  accompany  the  dialogue  and  to  give  a  moral  back- 
ground to  the  play.  Moreover,  he  introduced  less  of  the 
heroic  and  superhuman  element,  and  brought  his  characters 
into  closer  relation  to  human  life. 

The  Tragedies  of  Sophocles.  —  Sophocles  is  said  to  have 
composed  more  than  a  hundred  dramas,  of  which  only  seven 
have  come  down  to  us.  It  is  impossible  to  characterize  in  a 
few  words  these  great  works  of  literature.  They  are  wonder- 
ful delineations  of  human  suffering  under  the  stress  of  adverse 


246 


THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


circumstances.  In  the  "  Antigone  "  (page  86),  we  see  a  noble 
woman  struggling  to  obey  the  divine  will,  against  the  commands 
of  an  earthly  power ;  in  the  "  Elec'tra,"  a  lofty  nature  bowed 

down  with  an  overwhelm- 
ing sense  of  duty  ;  in  the 
"King  (Edipus,"  the  re- 
morse of  one  who  had 
been  led,  against  his  own 
will,  to  commit  a  horrible 
crime;  in  the  "  CEdipus  at 
Colonus,"  the  pitiful  suf- 
fering of  an  old  man  de- 
prived of  the  blessings 
of  life.  And  also  in  the 
"Ajax,"  the  "Philocte'- 
tes,"  and  the  "Trachin'- 
ise,"  we  see  other  phases 
of  human  suffering  under 
circumstances  which  ap- 
peal to  the  deepest  sym- 
pathy. 

Sophocles  as  a  Literary 
Artist.  —  In  estimating  the 
significance  of  Sophocles 
we  should  look  at  him  not 
simply  as  a  tragedian  but 
as  an  artist  —  as  truly  an 
artist  as  was  Phidias  or 
Polyclitus.  His  works, 
like  theirs,  are  distin- 
guished by  proportion  and 
symmetry,  by  extraordi- 
nary grace  and  beauty  of  form.  In  his  dramas,  as  in  the  build- 
ings and  sculpture  of  the  Acropolis,  we  see  the  distinctive 
features  of  the  best  Hellenic  taste.  It  has  been  well  said  that 
the  tragedies  of  Sophocles  "exhibit  the  same  union  of  power 


Sophocles 


INTELLECTUAL   CULTURE   UNDER   PERICLES 


247 


with  purity  of  taste,  the  same  self-restraint,  the  same  instinct 
for  beauty,  which  can  still  be  admired  in  the  remains  of  the 
temple.  In  the  poetry,  as  in  the  marble,  the  Athenian  spirit 
showed  the  fineness  to  which  it  could  be  tempered  by  the  con- 
currence of  those  influences  and  conditions  which  the  age  of 
Pericles  had  brought  together  "  (Jebb). 

The  Works  of  Euripides.  —  The  last  of  the  great  tragedians  was 
Eurip'ides,  who  composed  his  earlier  plays  during  the  period 
of  Pericles  —  but  continued  to  write  during  the  following 
period.  He  thus  represents 
to  a  certain  degree  the  chang- 
ing spirit  of  the  age.  While 
less  of  an  artist  than  Sopho- 
cles, he  appealed  quite  as 
strongly  to  the  sympathies  of 
the  people.  Aristotle  called 
him  the  "  most  tragic  of  poets." 
Eighteen  of  his  plays  are  still 
extant ;  and  from  these  we 
can  judge  of  his  style  and 
method  of  treating  his  sub- 
jects. In  his  hands  the  chorus 
became  less  connected  with 
the  action  of  the  play,  and 
his  characters  were  brought 
into  closer  relation  to  common  life.  The  ancient  legends, 
which  ^schylus  had  clothed  with  a  sublime  pathos,  and 
Sophocles  had  invested  with  a  dignified  charm,  Euripides  often 
reduced  to  the  level  of  ordinary  events.  The  lack  of  reverence 
which  he  showed  for  the  old  mythology  was  due  no  doubt  to 
the  philosophical  drift  of  the  times,  with  which  he  sympathized 
more  than  did  his  predecessors.  This  gave  to  his  writings 
what  appeared  to  many  as  a  taint  of  skepticism.  This  under- 
current of  Greek  philosophical  thought,  which  tended  to  dilute 
the  old  religious  beliefs,  we  can  better  understand  by  looking 
at  the  opinions  of  the  philosophers  themselves. 


Euripides 


248  THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 

III.    The  Progress  of  Philosophy  and  Education 

The  New  Philosophy;  Anaxagoras. — It  was  not  until  the 
time  of  Pericles  that  any  special  encouragement  was  given  to 
philosophy  at  Athens.  Hitherto,  as  we  have  seen,  philosophy 
had  been  cultivated  chiefly  in  Asia  Minor  and  southern  Italy. 
From  this  time,  however,  Athens  gradually  became  the  philo- 
sophical center  of  Greece.  The  first  thinker  who  belonged  to 
what  we  might  call  the  Athenian  school  was  Anaxag'oras. 
Although  born  at  Clazomense  in  Asia  Minor,  he  early  came  to 
Athens,  where  he  spent  the  most  of  his  life,  and  numbered 
among  his  friends  Pericles  and  Euripides.  His  name  marks 
an  epoch  in  the  development  of  the  Greek  mind;  because 
he  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  declare  that  the  world 
was  brought  into  shape  and  is  governed  by  a  supreme  Intel- 
ligence. This  doctrine  was  opposed  to  the  old  mythology ; 
and  as  the  people  were  jealous  of  their  ancient  beliefs, 
Anaxagoras  was  charged  with  atheism  and  banished  from 
the  city. 

The  Sophists  as  Teachers  and  Philosophers. — At  this  time 
there  also  appeared  a  class  of  men  called  sophists.  They 
were  primarily  teachers  who  gave  lectures  upon  science,  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  and  the  art  of  reasoning.  They  professed  to 
represent  the  entire  culture  of  the  time,  and  to  prepare  young 
men  for  the  practical  duties  of  life.  Their  pretense  of  learning 
was  often  mistaken  for  the  possession  of  wisdom ;  and  their 
training  in  the  art  of  reasoning  often  degenerated  into  mere 
quibbling,  or  the  attempt  "  to  make  the  worse  appear  the  better 
reason."  On  this  account  the  sophists  were  sometimes  led  to 
overlook  the  distinction  between  truth  and  error.  Their  philo- 
sophical ideas  had  therefore  no  firm  foundation.  To  them  one 
opinion  seemed  as  good  as  another ;  or  to  put  it  in  their  own 
words,  "  Man  is  the  measure  of  all  things." 

Athenian  Education.  — Whatever  criticism  we  may  pass  upon 
the  philosophical  ideas  of  the  sophists,  we  must  not  forget 
the  service  which   they  rendered   to   education.      From   the 


INTELLECTUAL  CULTURE   LENDER  PERICLES 


249 


time  of  Solon,  the  Greeks  had  been  thoroughly  impressed 
with  the  importance  of  training  the  young,  in  order  to  develop 
the  body,  the  mind,  and  the  emotions.  The  most  elementary 
education  consisted  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  Their 
reading  and  writing  included  the  committing  to  memory  of  the 
sayings  of  the  wise  men  and  passages  from  the  old  poets  ; 
these  were  also  copied  upon  waxed  tablets  by  means  of  the 
stylus.  Their  arithmetical  computations  were  made  with  the 
aid  of  the  abacus,  or  count- 
ing board.  To  this  was 
added  music,  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  feelings ; 
while  gymnastic  exercises 
gave  to  the  youths  sound, 
symmetrical  bodies.  To 
this  elementary  discipline 
given  in  the  schools  and 
gymnasia  was  now  added 
a  more  advanced  kind  of  ^  ^^^^^^  ^^'  the  Poets 

education  given  by  the  sophists,  .in  the  form  of  conversations 
and  lectures.  Such  instruction  was  given  in  the  frequented 
places  of  Athens  —  in  the  streets  and  in  the  porches  of  the 
Agora,  and  afterward  in  the  "  Academy  "  and  "  Lyce'um."  It 
included  all  branches  of  practical  and  theoretical  knowledge; 
and  was  intended  to  give  what  we  should  call  a  "liberal  educar 
tion  "  —  to  make  broad-minded  men  and  enlightened  citizens. 


IV.    Begixxixgs  of  Prose  Literature 

The  History  of  Herodotus.  —  We  should  not  leave  this  subject 
without  a  few  words  regarding  that  form  of  culture  which  is 
expressed  in  prose  literature.  In  Greece,  as  elsewhere,  poetry 
preceded  prose  in  the  order  of  development.  The  epic,  the 
elegy,  the  lyric,  the  drama,  had  been  cultivated '  before  any 
noteworthy  works  in  prose  were  written.  Even  philosophy 
was  at  first  written  in  the  form  of  poetry.     The  first  really 


250  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

great  work  of  prose  literature  in  the  Greek  language  was 
the  history  written  by  Herodotus,  a  native  of  Halicarnassus. 
Herodotus  was  born  during  the  period  of  the  Persian  wars. 
This  great  conflict  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians  was 
to  him  the  greatest  of  all  events.  It  became 
the  subject  of  his  history,  and  furnishes  to 
us  our  chief  knowledge  of  that  struggle. 
He  traveled  extensively,  and  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  manners,  institutions,  and 
legends  of  many  countries.  He  came  to 
Athens  when  the  culture  of  that  city  was  at 
its  height ;  and  he  became  a  close  friend  of 
Sophocles  and  an  ardent  admirer  of  Peri- 
Herodotus  ^^^^'    U^^®^  these  influences  his  history  be- 

came imbued  with  an  Athenian  spirit,  and 
acquired  the  character  of  an  artistic  literary  composition.  Into 
his  work  are  skillfully  woven  the  narrative  of  historical  events 
and  the  description  of  foreign  countries,  facts  which  he  him- 
self observed  as  well  as  stories  and  myths  told  him  by  others. 
The  critical  accuracy  of  Herodotus  has  often  been  questioned ; 
but  the  charming  qualities  of  his  simple,  direct,  and  graphic 
style  have  always  been  admired. 

The  Oratory  of  Pericles.  —  Another  form  of  prose  literature 
was  beginning  to  show  itself  in  orator}^  This  was  to  a  great 
extent  the  product  of  the  democratic  institutions  of  Athens. 
It  was  also  influenced  by  the  professional  teachers  of  rhetoric, 
who  instructed  citizens  how  to  plead  in  the  courts  and  how  to 
address  the  assembly.  The  earliest  extant  orations  are  those 
of  An'tiphon,  who  composed  speeches  as  examples  of  forensic 
debate.  But  so  far  as  we  know,  the  greatest  orator  of  the  age 
of  Pericles  was  Pericles  himself.  His  position  as  leader  of 
the  people  was  due,  not  only  to  his  character  as  a  man  and  his 
ability  as  a  statesman,  but  also  to  his  power  of  eloquence,  by 
which  he  was  able  to  control  the  Athenian  assembly.  When  we 
remember  that  the  Athenian  state  was  ruled  by  the  assembly, 
and  that  for  twenty  years  the  assembly  was  controlled  by  the 


SOCIAL   CULTURE,   LIFE   AND   MANNERS  251 

words  of  Pericles,  we  must  regard  hiin  not  simply  as  "  the  most 
accomplished  of  orators,"  as  Plato  calls  him,  but  as  an  orator 
who,  for  eifective  eloquence,  has  had  few  equals  in  the  world's 
history. 

SELECTIONS  FOR   READING 

Allcroft,  Vol.  IL,  Ch.  15,  "Literature"  (lO).i 

Jebb,  Classical  Poetry,  pp.  157-221,  "The  Attic  Drama"  (23). 

Gow,  §31,  "The  Greek  Drama"  (18). 

Butcher,  pp.  85-132,  Sophocles  (12). 

Holm,  Vol.  11.,  Ch.  29,  "Art  and  Literature"  (11). 

Curtius,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  546-558,  "Intellectual  Life  at  Athens"  (11). 

Symonds,  Ch.  7,  "Greek  Tragedy  and  Euripides"  (23). 

Zeller,  pp.  83-88,  "  Anaxagoras"  ;  pp.  88-101,  "The  Sophists"  (24). 

Bury,  Ch.  9,  §  11,  "  Higher  Education  and  the  Sophists"  (10). 

Bliimner,  Ch.  3,  "Education"  (22). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  Greek  Theater.  —  Blumner,  Ch.  12  (22)  ;  Gow,  pp.  259-286 
(18)  ;  Guhl  and  Koner,  pp.  121-133,  275-281  (22)  ;  Becker,  pp.  403-412 
(22)  ;  Grant,  pp.  310-316  (16)  ;  Haigh,  especially  Ch.  3  (23)  ;  Harper's 
Class.  Diet.,  "Theatrum  "  (18)  ;  Donaldson,  Bk.  IL  (23). 


CHAPTER   XX 

SOCIAL   CULTURE,  LIFE   AND    MANNERS 

I.   Industrial  Life  in  Athens 

Occupations  of  the  People.  —  From  these  higher  planes  of  cul- 
ture we  may  descend  to  the  more  ordinary  phases  of  Athenian 
life  —  the  social  customs  and  manners  of  the  people.  Let  us 
first  look  at  the  industrial  society.  How  did  the  Athenians 
get  their  living?  Many  of  them  received  some  compensation 
by  serving  the  state.     The  higher  officials,  it  is  true,  received 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


252 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


no  reward  except  the  honor  which  attended  the  position.  But 
pay  was  given  to  the  members  of  the  council,  to  the  "  dicasts '' 
when  serving  as  jurors,  to  all  citizens  attending  the  assembly, 
and  to  those  who  served  in  the  army  and  the  fleet.  But  the 
mass  of  citizens  obtained  their  living  at  Athens,  as  in  other 
communities,  by  engaging  in  some  agricultural,  manufacturing, 
commercial,  or  professional  pursuit. 

Agriculture  and  Agricultural  Products.  —  From  the  earliest 
times  agriculture  was  regarded  as  an  honorable  occupation. 
No  one  but  a  free  citizen  could  own  land  in  Attica.  Although 
the  land  was  not  very  fertile,  and  was  generally  worked  by 
slaves,  it  yielded  a  fair  income  to  its  owner.  The  soil  was 
adapted  not  so  well  to  the  raising  of  cereals  as  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  olives,  figs,  and  grapes.  With  the  cutting  down  of  the 
forests,  the  land  was  also  used  for  grazing.  On  the  hills  of 
Attica  bees  were  kept,  and  the  honey  of  Hymettus  was  famous. 
The  farmers  furnished  most  of  the  food  required  for  the  people, 
except  grain  and  some  of  the  luxuries  of  the  epicure,  which 
were  obtained  from  other  lands. 

Manufactures  and  Industrial  Arts.  —  Although  a  certain 
amount  of  industry  was  carried  on  in  the  household,  —  such  as 
spinning,  weaving,  and  embroidery, — 
there  grew  up  in  Athens  a  great  variety 
of  trades  in  which  separate  classes  of 
artisans  were  employed.  There  were 
millers  and  bakers;  makers  of  cloth, 
fullers  and  dyers;  workers  in  wood,  like 
furniture,  cabinet,  and  wagon  makers; 
workers  in  iron,  like  blacksmiths  and 
makers  of  arms  and  armor;  artisans  in 
clay,  glass,  silver,  and  gold.  "In  con- 
sequence of  the  flourishing  condition  of 
the  Attic  trades,  the  articles  were  sought 
everywhere,  as,  for  example,  the  Attic  metal  and  leather 
wares,  lamps,  utensils  of  all  kinds,  especially  of  earthenware  " 
(Curtius). 


Greek  Vase 


SOCIAL  CULTURE,   LIFE  AND  MANNERS 


^53 


Commerce  and  Trade.  —  Like  many  other  cities  of  Greece, 
Athens  became  an  important  commercial  center,  especially 
after  the  building  of  her  famous  seaport,  the  Piraeus.  But  as 
a  large  part  of  the  commercial  business  was  carried  on  by  resi- 
dent foreigners,  this  occupation  was  not 
in  so  high  repute  as  those  of  the  farmer 
or  the  manufacturer.  The  exports  were 
mostly  manufactured  articles,  including  oil 
and  wine.  The  imports  included  grain  from 
Pontus,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  and  wood,  iron, 
and  copper  from  Macedonia  and  Thrace. 
An  important  mercantile  occupation  was 
that  of  the  banker,  whose  business  was  to 
change,  borrow,  and  lend  money,  and  also  to 
assist  people  in  making  investments. 

Professional  Pursuits.  —  Certain  people 
gained  their  living  by  pursuits  which  we 
should  call  "professional."  For  example,  the 
physician,  who  was  supposed  to  derive  his 
knowledge  from  the  god  Ascle'pius  (^scula - 
pius),  was  held  in  great  esteem ;  he  received 
fees  for  his  services,  and  sometimes  had  a 
fixed  salary  paid  by  the  state.  Although  the  ordinary  school- 
master was  regarded  as  hardly  better  than  a  servant,  the  higher 
teachers,  like  the  sophists,  were  honored  and  received  consid- 
erable pay  for  their  instruction.  The  common  sculptor  was 
looked  upon  merely  as  a  stonecutter;  but  there  were  artists, 
architects,  and  painters,  like  Phidias,  Ictinus,  and  Polygnotus, 
whose  position  ranked  as  a  profession,  accompanied  with  honor 
and  large  remuneration.  A  similar  difference  existed  between 
the  lower  and  the  better  class  of  actors  and  musicians.  In  the 
matter  of  law,  every  man  was  expected  to  plead  his  own  cause ; 
but  in  the  course  of  time  men  assumed  the  part  of  counselors, 
to  give  advice  to  litigants  and  to  prepare  speeches  to  be 
delivered  by  them  in  the  courts  of  justice,  and  this  became 
a  lucrative  profession. 


ASCLEPIUS 


254  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

Greek  Slavery.  —  In  Athens,  as  well  as  in  the  other  parts  of 
Greece,  and  in  fact  in  all  the  nations  of  antiquity,  a  large  part 
of  the  industry,  especially  that  of  a  menial  character,  was  per- 
formed by  slaves.  Generally  the  slave  received  no  compensa- 
tion for  his  work  except  his  support;  but  occasionally  he 
might  be  intrusted  with  a  certain  amount  of  money  and  allowed 
a  percentage  on  what  he  made  from  it,  and  with  his  profits  he 
might  even  purchase  his  freedom.  The  worst  effect  of  slavery 
was  to  throw  a  kind  of  reproach  upon  almost  all  forms  of 
manual  labor,  and  thus  to  degrade  the  poor  class  of  freemen 
who  were  obliged  to  work  for  a  living. 

II.     Domestic  Life  in  Athens 

The  Athenian  Home.  —  After  looking  at  the  way  in  which  the 
Athenian  obtained  his  living,  we  may  look  at  the  way  in  which 
he  lived,  especially  at  his  own  home.  As  he  spent  a  large  part 
of  his  time  at  the  Agora  and  other  public  resorts,  we  might 
suppose  that  his  home  life  would  be  a  matter  of  minor  impor- 
tance. While  this  is  true  to  a  certain  extent,  still  he  was  not 
unmindful  of  his  family.  In  his  own  house  he  was  the  su- 
preme master,  and  the  law  did  not  interfere  with  his  authority. 
Absorbed  in  public  life,  the  Athenian,  however,  looked  upon 
his  home  chiefly  as  the  place  where  he  could  eat,  sleep,  offer 
his  daily  prayers,  entertain  his  friends,  and  store  his  goods ; 
while  he  left  its  management  almost  entirely  to  the  house- 
wife and  her  retinue  of  servants. 

The  House  and  its  Furniture.  —  The  ordinary  dwelling  house 
was  an  unpretentious  structure,  as  compared  with  the  magnifi- 
cent public  buildings  on  which  the  Athenians  lavished  their 
wealth.  As  we  approach  the  house  we  see  nothing  but  a  plain 
wall  facing  the  street,  and  entered  by  a  single  door,  upon  which 
is  hung  a  metal  knocker.  In  its  plan  the  house  was  simply  a 
series  of  rooms  surrounding  a  court,  which  was  open  to  the  sky. 
The  court  itself  was  usually  surrounded  by  a  series  of  columns, 
which  in  the   finer  houses  produced  a  dignified  and  artistic 


SOCIAL  CULTURE,   LIFE   AND   MANNERS 


255 


Interior  of  a  Greek  House  (Restoration) 

effect.  Sometimes  there  might  be  a  second  court  in  the  rear, 
surrounded  by  the  women's  apartments ;  and  often  the  house 
might  be  constructed  with  a  second  story.  The  roof  was  flat 
and  covered  w^ith  clay  tiles.  The  decoration  and  furniture  of 
the  house  corresponded,  of  course,  to  the  wealth  of  the  occu- 
pant. The  Greeks  generally  preferred  comfort  to  luxury. 
But  the  furnishings,  however  simple  they  might  be,  showed  a 
refined  taste.  The  chairs,  stools,  and  couches  were  made  of 
ornamental  woodwork.  The  lamps,  made  of  metal  or  terra- 
cotta, were  especially  artistic.  In  different  places  around  the 
court  we  might  see  bronze  or  marble  statuettes  and  vases  of 
precious  metal  and  of  elegant  workmanship. 

Dress  and  Ornaments.  —  The  Greeks  also  showed  their  simple 
taste  in  their  dress,  which  was  in  strong  contrast  to  the  elabo- 
rate and  gaudy  apparel  of  the  Oriental  people.  The  dress  of 
the  men  and  women  was  quite  similar,  although  that  of  the 
latter  was  more  full  and  flowing.  It  consisted  usually  of  two 
garments ;  first,  a  tunic  called  chiton,  held  in  place  by  clasps 


256 


THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


upon  the  shoulder,  and  a  belt  or  girdle  about  the  waist ;  and 
second,  a  broad  cloak  called  hima'tion,  thrown  in  loose  folds 
about  the  body.  The  mode  of  adjusting 
the  himation  often  showed  the  skill  and 
taste  of  the  wearer  (see  page  246).  The 
feet  might  or  might  not  be  protected  by 
sandals.  The  elaborate  ornaments  worn 
by  the  Greeks  at  the  time  of  Homer  were 
discarded  by  men  at  the  time  of  Pericles. 
The  Athenian  gentleman,  dressed  in  his 
tunic  and  cloak,  with  sandals,  a  ring  upOn 
his  finger,  and  a  walking  stick  in  his  hand, 
was  fully  equipped  for  the  street.  The 
Athenian  women  still  retained  a  taste  for 
ornaments.  They  wore  a  fillet  for  con- 
fining the  hair,  earrings  of  various  designs, 
Athena  necklaces,  and  bracelets  and  anklets.     They 

also  carried  fans  and  parasols,  either  for  use  or  for  ornament. 
The  general  effect  of  the  simple  female  costume  of  the  Greeks 
may  be  seen  in  the  pictures  here  given 
of  statues  representing  different  mytho- 
logical characters. 

Marriage  and  the  Position  of  Women.  — 
As  the  father  was  the  master  of  the 
household,  he  provided  for  the  mar- 
riage of  his  children ;  and  the  betrothal 
was  really  an  engagement  made  between 
the  parents  of  the  bride  and  groom. 
Although  marriage  was  a  legal  contract, 
the  wedding  was  a  sacred,  as  well  as  a 
festive,  ceremony.  The  parties  purified 
themselves  with  the  water  brought  from 
a  sacred  spring,  and  the  bride's  father 
offered  a  sacrifice  to  the  gods  of   mar-  Urania 

riage.     Then  followed  a  banquet,  in  which  the  guests  partook 
of  the  wedding  cake.     The  banquet  closed  with  a  libation  and 


SOCIAL   CULTURE,   LIFE   AND   MANNERS  257 

kind  wishes  for  the  newly  married  couple,  who  were  attended 
to  their  future  home  by  a  procession  of  friends  and  attend- 
ants, garlanded  with  flowers  and  singing 
the  nuptial  song  to  the  music  of  flutes. 

The  Athenians  believed  that  the  proper 
sphere  of  woman  was  the  home  ;  and  she 
was  hence  deprived  of  the  liberty  which 
she  enjoyed  in  Homeric  times,  and  even 
at  this  time  in  Sparta.  Her  world  was 
the  little  world  of  household  duties.  For 
this  sphere  she  had  been  trained  by  her 
mother ;  and  she  was  taught  that  politics 
and  the  turmoil  of  the  street  should  be 
left  to  men.  Her  employments,  —  spin- 
ning, weaving,  embroidery,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  her  personal  charms,  —  were  not 
of  course  conducive  to  a  high  intellectual  Polymnia 

culture.  The  women  of  Athens  are  therefore  often  satirized 
by  certain  comic  poets  and  other  writers.  But  we  must  re- 
member that  the  Athenians  worshiped 
Athena  as  the  guardian  of  their  city,  and 
venerated  their  goddesses  quite  as  highly 
as  their  gods ;  that  woman  was  one  of 
the  most  exalted  subjects  of  the  best 
Athenian  art;  and  that  female  charac- 
ters, like  the  Antigone  of  Sophocles,  are 
among  the  most  noble  in  the  whole  range 
of  Athenian  literature.  These  facts  show 
that  the  Athenians  were  not  entirely 
insensible  to  the  attractions  of  feminine 
beauty  and  feminine  virtues. 

Funeral    Ceremonies.  —  The   Athenians 

had  a  great   respect   for  the  dead.     To 

Demeter  give  a  proper  burial   to   one's   relatives 

was  one  of  the  most  sacred  of  duties.     Even  a  stranger  who 

found  a  dead  body  was  required  to  cover  it  with  earth.      The 


258 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


funeral  ceremonies  were  strictly  defined.  The  body  was  washed, 
anointed,  clothed,  crowned  with  a  chaplet,  and  laid  out  in  the 
vestibule.  An  obolus  was  placed  in  the  mouth  as  a  fee  to 
Charon,  who  was  supposed  to  row  the  departed  spirit  across 
the  river  Styx.     Then  were  brought  together  and  deposited 


Laying  out  of  the  Dead 

near  the  body  vases  and  other  personal  effects,  to  be  placed 
in  the  grave.  Over  the  bier  were  uttered  loud  lamentations. 
On  the  third  day  the  funeral  procession,  made  up  of  the  mourn- 
ing relatives  and  their  friends,  attended  the  body  to  the  spot 
where  it  was  to  be  burned  or  buried.  If  the  corpse  was 
burned,  the  ashes  were  collected  in  an  urn.  If  it  was  buried, 
it  was  placed  in  a  coffin,  and  above  the  grave  was  erected 
some  kind  of  monument.  One  of  the  most  important  of  the 
burial  grounds  of  Athens  was  in  the  Outer  Ceramicus  beyond 
the  Dipylon  Gate. 


III.    Social  Life  ix  Athens 

Athenian  Sociability.  —  The  Athenians  were  essentially  a 
sociable  people.  This  is  seen  in  their  hospitality,  which  they 
possessed  in  common  with  all  other  Greeks,  but  especially  in 
their  love  of  companionship  and  of  social  entertainments,  and 
also  in  their  love  of  conversation.  Of  all  the  Greek  peoples 
the  Athenians  excelled  in  the  power  to  talk  in  an  interesting 


SOCIAL  CULTURE,   LIFE  AND  MANNERS  259 

manner.  With  their  high  intellectual  tastes,  they  liked  to  com- 
pare their  ideas  upon  literature  and  art  and  philosophy ;  and 
with  their  strong  democratic  spirit,  they  cared  little  for  the 
aristocracy  of  blood  or  wealth.  The  marks  of  a  gentleman 
were  refined  manners,  a  bright  intellect,  a  good  education, 
and,  not  the  least,  the  capacity  to  converse  in  a  pleasing  man- 
ner upon  many  topics.  Their  social  qualities  were  thus  in 
harmony  with  their  general  intellectual  culture. 

Society  of  the  Street.  —  The  open  air  was,  in  many  respects, 
the  home  of  the  Greek  gentleman.  In  the  streets  he  could 
always  find  his  friends,  with  whom  he  was  accustomed  to  pass 
many  hours  of  the  day.  The  chief  center  of  the  social  life  of 
Athens  —  as  it  was  of  the  political  and  commercial  life  —  was 
the  Agora.  Here  under  the  shade  of  plane  trees,  or  within  the 
neighboring  porches  and  porticoes,  he  could  find  comfort  and 
the  companionship  of  friends.  Here  he  could  discuss  the 
policy  of  Pericles,  the  art  of  Phidias,  the  plays  of  Sophocles, 
the  ideas  of  Anaxagoras  and  the  sophists,  or  engage  in  talk  of 
a  lighter  strain.  A  great  deal  of  the  intellectual  culture  of 
Athens  was  thus  developed  by  this  kind  of  social  intercourse, 
which  we  might  call  the  "  society  of  the  street." 

The  Lyceum  and  Academy.  —  The  Athenians  found  other 
places  of  resort  and  social  pleasures  in  the  gymnasia,  of  which 
we  shall  notice  only  the  two  most  famous  —  the  Lyceum  and 
the  Academy.  They  were  both  situated  outside  the  walls  of 
the  city,  the  Lyceum  just  to  the  east,  and  the  Academy  about 
a  mile  to  the  north.  They  were  at  first  simply  exercising 
grounds  laid  out  for  the  benefit  of  the  young  men.  But  it 
became  customary  for  the  older  men  to  repair  to  these  places, 
not  only  to  watch  the  games,  but  to  find  a  retreat  from  the 
bustle  of  the  city.  The  gymnasia  became  in  time  more 
spacious  and  elegant  in  their  arrangements,  surrounded  by 
colonnades,  with  adjoining  halls  furnished  with  seats  for 
philosophers,  rhetoricans,  and  others  who  delighted  in  intel- 
lectual conversation.  In  this  way  the  gymnasia  —  such  as  the 
Lyceum  and  the  Academy  —  came  to  be  not  only  places  for 
morey's  greek  hist.  —  16 


260  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

exercise  and  recreation,  but  centers  of  intellectual  and  social 
life.  ■  These  places  were  under  strict  regulations,  based  upon 
the  Greek  idea  that  there  should  be  rational  moderation  and 
decorum  in  all  things. 

Social  and  Political  Clubs.  —  Another  feature  of  the  social  life 
of  Athens  is  seen  in  the  organization  of  clubs.  These  grew  out 
of  the  early  custom  of  forming  parties,  like  picnics,  at  which 
each  person  contributed  his  portion  of  the  viands.  But  in 
time  they  came  to  be  permanent  organizations  of  persons,  made 
up  generally  of  young  men,  who  shared  in  the  expense  of  main- 
taining the  club.  The  club  was  organized  primarily  for  social 
.  purposes,  to  cultivate  companionship ;  and  one  of  its  features 
was  a  stated  dinner  or  banquet  given  perhaps  once  a  month. 
But  from  these  social  clubs  grew  up  political  clubs  made  up 
usually  of  aristocratic  yomig  men,  devoted  to  the  interest  of 
the  oligarchical  party ;  and  these  came  to  exercise  some  influ- 
ence upon  the  political  life  of  Athens. 

The  Banquet  and  Symposium.  —  The  banquet  was  not  simply 
a  special  feature  of  the  social  clubs ;  it  was  a  general  feature 
of  Athenian  society.  As  there  were  no  places  of  public  amuse- 
ment open  after  sunset,  the  banquet  was  the  chief  form  of 
entertainment  for  the  evening.  It  was  generally  a  dinner 
party  given  by  a  gentleman  at  his  own  house  to  his  friends. 
It  differed  from  the  ordinary  dinner  in  being  more  elabo- 
rate and  in  being  restricted  to  men,  and  also  in  being  followed 
by  a  "symposium.''  The  character  of  the  symposium  varied,  of 
course,  with  the  character  and  culture  of  the  guests.  With 
the  most  highly  cultivated,  it  was  indeed  a  "  feast  of  reason 
and  flow  of  soul,"  accompanied  as  it  was  by  refined  conversa- 
tion, dashes  of  oratory,  sparks  of  wit,  relieved  by  rehearsals 
from  the  poets  and  the  music  of  the  flute  or  lyre.  A  less 
cultivated  class  would  be  entertained  by  enigmas  and  rid- 
dles, jests  and  jokes  at  the  expense  of  friends,  and  games  of 
skill  or  chance.  With  the  most  convivial  and  least  cultivated, 
the  symposium  might  descend  to  ribaldry,  the  singing  of  bois- 
terous songs ;  and  with  the  exhaustion  of  their  own  resources 


PEEIOD  V.     THE  TALL   OF  THE  ATHENIAN  EMPIEE 
(431-359   B.C.) 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE   PELOPONNESIAN   WAR    (431-404  b.c.) 

I.   From  the  Beginxixg  to  the  Peace  of  Nicias 
(431-421  B.C.) 

Causes  and  Significance  of  the  War.  —  We  have  now  passed  in 
review  the  most  important  facts  in  Greek  history  since  the 
close  of  the  Persian  invasions  —  a  period  marked  by  the  growth 
of  the  Athenian  empire,  and  culminating  in  the  brilliant  age  of 
Pericles.  Since  the  so-called  Thirty  Years'  Truce  (see  page  213), 
Athens  had  achieved  triumphs  in  peace  surpassing  the  mili- 
tary glory  which  she  had  acquired  in  the  wars  with  Persia. 
But  from  this  height  of  prosperity  she  was  destined  soon  to 
fall.  As  we  take  a  certain  pride  in  her  prosperity,  so  the  story 
of  her  fall  has  for  us  a  kind  of  tragic  interest. 

If  we  look  at  some  of  the  methods  which  Athens  used  in 
developing  her  empire,  we  must  be  convinced  that  her  great- 
ness was,  to  a  certain  extent,  acquired  at  the  expense  of  others. 
In  building  up  her  empire  she  had  degraded  her  allies  into 
subjects.  In  adorning  her  city  she  had  used  the  funds  which 
were  contributed  for  the  common  defense.  She  was  evidently 
devoted  more  to  her  own  interests  and  glory  than  to  the  com- 
mon welfare  of  Greece.  Her  imperial  policy  awakened  not 
only  the  discontent  of  her  own  subjects,  but  also  the  jealousy 
of  the  Peloponnesian  states  under  the  lead  of  Sparta.     All 

263 


264  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

these  things  were  remote  causes  which  finally  led  to  that  long 
and  bitter  conflict  known  as  the  Peloponnesian  war.  While 
an  undue  importance  is  sometimes  given  to  this  war,  there  are 
yet  certain  reasons  why  it  has  for  us  a  peculiar  significance : 
(1)  because  it  is  described  by  one  of  the  world's  greatest  his- 
torians, Thucydides  ;  (2)  because  it  marks  the  downfall  of  the 
Athenian  empire  ;  and  (3)  because  it  illustrates  one  of  the  great 
defects  of  the  Greek  character  —  the  incapacity  to  form  a 
national  state. 

Events  Leading  to  the  War.  —  This  war  was  essentially  a 
struggle  between  Athens  and  Sparta.  The  events  which  led  to 
it,  however,  did  not  directly  concern  Sparta  herself,  but  Corinth, 
one  of  the  members  of  the  Peloponnesian  league.  It  was 
Corinth  that  first  became  embroiled  with  Athens.  Corinth 
was  incensed  because,  in  a  quarrel  between  herself  and  her 
colony  Corcyra,  Athens  had  taken  the  part  of  Corcyra.  On 
the  other  hand,  Athens  was  incensed  because,  in  an  attempt  to 
put  down  a  revolt  in  Potidsea,  —  a  colony  in  Chalcidice  origi- 
nally founded  by  Corinth,  but  now  a  subject  ally  of  Athens 
—  Corinth  had  taken  the  part  of  Potidsea.  These  facts,  of 
course,  produced  a  bitter  feeling  between  Corinth  and  Athens. 
But  Corinth  was  in  no  condition  to  cope  single-handed  with  a 
power  like  Athens;  and  so  she  appealed  to  Sparta  for  aid, 
claiming  that  Athens  had  broken  the  Thirty  Years'  Truce. 
Sparta  called  a  meeting  of  the  Peloponnesian  states  ;  and  it 
was  there  decided  to  declare  war  against  Athens. 

Parties  to  the  War.  —  By  this  declaration  of  war  Greece 
became  divided  into  two  hostile  camps,  under  the  leadership 
respectively  of  Sparta  and  of  Athens.  Sparta  was  the  head  of 
the  I)oria.n  racg^and  ot'~Ehe  Peloponnesian  league,  which  was  a 
confederacy  consisting  largely  of  inland  st^[tes;  she  was  also 
the  representative  of  aristocracy ;  and  she  had  under  her  com- 
mand the  best-organized  army  of  Greece.  Athens,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  the  head  of  the  Ionian  race,  and  of  the  Delian  confed- 
eracy, which  had  become  an  empire  of  maritime  states ;  she 
was   also  the  promoter  of  democratic  institutions ;   and  she 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  265 

had  under  her  control  the  most  powerful  navy  of  Greece. 
Around  these  two  leading  powers  were  grouped  the  various 
states  of  Hellas.  Sparta  had  on  her  side  all  the  states  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  —  except  Argolis  and  Achaia,  which  remained 
neutral,  —  and,  outside  the  Peloponnesus,  Megaris,  Boeotia,  East 
Locris,  Phocis,  Ambra'cia,  Anacto'rium,  and  the  island  of  Leucas. 
Athens,  on  her  part,  was  supported  by  all  the  island  states  of 
the  ^gean,  —  except  Melos  and  Thera, — together  with  the  coast 
cities  of  Asia  Minor,  Thrace,  Chalcidice,  and  Thessaly  (a  luke- 
warm ally),  also  Acarnania  and  Naupactus,  and  the  western 
islands  of  Corcyra,  Zacynthus,  and  afterward  Cephallenia. 
These  various  states  supported  their  respective  leaders  with 
soldiers,  ships,  and  money. 

The  War  Policy  of  Pericles ;  his  Death.  —  If  we  compare  the 
respective  forces  of  the  two  leading  states,  we  may  see  the  rea- 
son of  the  war  policy  adopted  by  Pericles.  The  Athenian  army 
could  not  hope  to  defeat  the  superior  land  forces  which  Sparta 
sent  to  invade  Attica ;  and  so  the  inhabitants  of  Attica  were 
called  upon  by  Pericles  to  find  a  safe  refuge  within  the  walls 
of  the  city,  while  the  powerful  Athenian  navy  was  sent  to 
harass  and  ravage  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus.  In  this  way 
the  war  was  conducted  during  the  earlier  years  —  that  is,  by 
periodical  invasions  of  Attica  by  the  Spartan  army,  and  by 
successive  attacks  upon  the  Peloponnesian  coasts  by  the  Athe- 
nian navy. 

In  the  third  year  of  the  war  Pericles  died  (429  b.c),  stricken 
down  by  a  terrible  plague  which  broke  out  in  the  over- 
crowded city.  In  the  death  of  Pericles  Athens  lost  her 
greatest  statesman,  at  a  time  when  she  needed  him  most. 
No  one  man  whom  she  had  ever  produced  expressed  more 
fully  what  was  best  in  the  Athenian  character.  "  None  did  so 
much  to  make  his  country  great,  his  city  beautiful.  Statesman, 
politician,  and  diplomat ;  soldier,  general,  and  admiral ;  philoso- 
pher, artist,  and  orator ;  immovable  in  soul,  inflexible  in  purpose, 
incorruptible  in  honor ;  he  was  the  first  and  last  embodiment  of 
all  the  qualities  which  went  to  make  Athens  great"  (Allcroft). 


266  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

Progress  of  the  War. —  New  and  less  experienced  leaders 
now  came  forward  to  guide  the  affairs  of  state.  The  man  who 
aspired  to  the  position  of  Pericles  was  Cleon,  a  coarse  leather- 
dealer,  a  bold  demagogue,  and  a  vociferous  orator.  Opposed 
to  him  was  Nicias  {7iish'i-as),  a  Avell-bred  man,  a  conservative 
leader,  but  overcautious  and  devoid  of  energy.  During  the 
next  four  years  the  progress  of  the  war  was  marked  by  four 
important  events  —  the  fall  of  Plataea,  the  revolt  of  Lesbos,  the 
sedition  at  Corcyra,  and  the  capture  of  Sphacte'ria. 

1.  Plataea,  a  city  on  the  borders  of  Boeotia,  was  an  old  and 
steadfast  ally  of  Athens.  Leaving  the  plague  to  do  its  work 
in  Attica,  the  Spartans  invested  this  city  (429  b.c).  No  aid 
came  from  the  distracted  city  of  Athens ;  and  after  two  years 
of  siege,  the  Plataeans  were  obliged  to  surrender,  and  were 
mercilessly  put  to  death. 

2.  During  the  siege  of  Platsea,  the  Athenians  were  startled 
with  the  news  that  Lesbos,  one  of  their  most  powerful  allies 
on  the  Asiatic  coast,  was  in  a  state  of  revolt.  This  revolt  was 
provoked  by  the  oligarchical  faction,  which  was  hostile  to 
Athens.  A  year  was  required  to  reduce  to- submission  Myti- 
lene  and  the  other  cities  of  the  island  (427  B.C.).  When  the 
question  arose  in  the  Athenian  assembly  as  to  what  should  be 
done  with  the  insurgents,  Cleon  demanded  that  every  one  of 
them  should  be  put  to  death ;  his  stormy  eloquence  prevailed 
and  a  decree  was  passed  to  that  effect.  As  the  result  of  wiser 
counsels,  however,  the  decree  was  changed  the  next  day,  and 
made  to  apply  only  to  the  leaders  of  the  revolt.  But  under 
this  more  merciful  act,  over  a  thousand  men,  it  is  said,  were  put 
to  death,  the  walls  of  Mytilene  were  dismantled,  and  the  lands 
were  allotted  to  Athenian  citizens. 

3.  Not  only  the  island  of  Lesbos  in  the  east,  but  the  island 
of  Corcyra  in  the  west,  was  distracted  by  the  seditious  at- 
tempts of  the  oligarchical  faction  to  break  the  alliance  with 
Athens  (427  b.c).  This  sedition  was  attended  with  the  most 
horrible  scenes  of  bloodshed  and  crime,  and  the  island  was 
plunged  into  a  reign  of  terror.     Never  before  had  the  strife  of 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR 


267 


parties  been  so  deadly.  Sparta  sent  there  a  fleet  to  aid  the 
oligarchs  in  their  revolt  against  Athens.  Athens  also  sent  a  fleet 
to  aid  the  democratic  party  in  putting  down  the  rebellion. 
Finally,  the  democratic  party  triumphed  by  utterly  extermi- 
nating the  defeated  faction ;  and  the  alliance  with  Athens  was 
renewed. 

4.  Soon  after  this  disgraceful  sedition  at  Corcyra,  the  Athe- 
nians gained  a  great  success  by  the  capture  of  Pylos  and  the 
island  of  Sphacteria,  on  the  western  coast  of  Messenia.  Pylos 
was  a  height  upon  the  mainland;  it  was 
captured  and  fortified  by  the  able  general 
Demos'thenes.  The  Spartans  hastened  with 
an  army  and  fleet  to  dislodge  the  Athenian 
force.  The  fleet  was  defeated  in  the  bay, 
and  a  part  of  the  army  was  entrapped  on 
the  neighboring  island  of  Sphacteria.  The 
Spartans  sued  for  peace  ;  but  the  voice  of 
Cleon  overpowered  the  Athenian  assembly, 
and  the  war  continued.  As  Cleon  boasted 
that  he  could  capture  the  beleaguered 
Spartans  he  w^as  given  the  authority  to  do  so.  With  the  aid  of 
Demosthenes,  he  reduced  the  island  within  twenty  days,  and  re- 
turned triumphantly  to  Athens  with  three  hundred  prisoners 
(425  B.C.).  This  piece  of  good  fortune  made  the  boasting  dema- 
gogue the  hero  of  the  hour,  and  gave  the  Athenians  new  hope. 

Brasidas  and  the  Campaign  in  Chalcidice  (424  b.c).  —  Except 
the  capture  of  Platsea,  the  Spartans  had  gained  no  important 
victory  on  land  or  sea  since  the  beginning  of  the  war,  and  now 
the  loss  of  Sphacteria  was  humiliating.  Added  to  this  mis- 
fortune, the  Athenians  soon  captured  the  island  of  Cythera 
(424  B.C.),  from  which  they  could  cut  off  the  Spartan  commerce 
and  harass  the  neighboring  coasts  of  Laconia.  But  from  these 
discouragements  and  threatening  dangers,  Sparta  was  rescued 
by  the  ability  of  her  most  able  general,  Bras'idas.  This  keen- 
sighted  general  saw  that  the  repeated  invasions  of  Attica  were 
useless  as  long  as  Athens  could  draw  support  from  her  ^gean 


i 

•"^^m 

%' 

Vm 

^   % 

4 

i 

^ 

^M.Bay  of  PylosM 

CO 

m 

■    C^^ 

i 

V 

yi^ 

i 

^ 

1 

Sphacteria 


268 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


allies.  He  therefore  determined  to  strike  at  the  sources  of 
Athenian  power,  and  planned  the  most  brilliant  campaign  of 
the  war  —  the  expedition  into  Chalcidice.  Here  were  situated 
some  of  the  most  important  allies  of  Athens,  in  a  country  rich 
in  resources.  With  a  small  force  Brasidas  marched  through 
Megaris,  Boeotia,  and  Thessaly.  While  he  was  far  away  to 
the  north,  the  Athenians  tried  to  get  possession  of  Boeotia,  but 
were  severely  defeated  in  a  battle  at  De'lium  (424  b.c).    On  his 

arrival  in  Chalcidice, 
Brasidas  appealed  to 
the  cities  to  throw 
off  the  yoke  of  the 
tyrant  Athens.  Sev- 
eral towns  quickly 
responded  to  his  call 
—  Acan'thus,  Stagi- 
rus,  and  Ar'gilus. 
Amphip'olis  soon  sur- 
rendered, and  Brasi- 
das was  prevented 
from  taking  Ei'on  only  by  the  arrival  of  the  Athenian  general 
Thucydides  (the  historian),  who  had  been  lying  with  a  small 
squadron  off  the  island  of  Thasos.  Turning  to  the  south, 
Brasidas  took  possession  of  the  little  peninsula  of  Acte  and 
then  the  cities  of  Torone  and  Mende  on  the  other  peninsulas. 
The  Athenians  thus  lost  an  important  part  of  their  empire, 
situated  on  the  northern  ^Egean. 

The  Peace  of  Nicias  (421  b.c).  — Cast  down  by  these  disasters 
Athens  obtained  a  truce  for  a  year  (423  b.c).  At  its  conclusion 
Cleon  still  clamored  for  war,  and  was  himself  appointed  general. 
A  battle  fought  at  Amphipolis  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Athenians,  and  the  death  both  of  Cleon  and  of  the  Spartan 
general  Brasidas.  The  way  was  thus  opened  for  peace. 
This  was  negotiated  by  Nicias,  now  the  leading  man  of 
Athens  (421  b.c).  The  parties  agreed  to  restore  the  acqui- 
sitions made  by  each  during  the  war.     Sparta  was  to  give  up 


Campaign  in  Chalcidice 


THE   PELOPONNESIAN   WAR  269 

Amphipolis,  and  Athens  was  to  give  up  Pylos  and  Cythera  and 
the  captives  taken  in  war.  It  was  agreed  that  peace  should  be 
maintained  for  fifty  years. 

II.   Fkom  the  Peace  of  Nicias  to  the  Sicilian 
Disaster  (421-413  b.c.) 

Alcibiades  and  the  Sicilian  Expedition.  —  The  so-called  Peace  of 
Nicias  proved  to  be  futile,  and  was  soon  followed  by  new  com- 
binations and  intrigues  between  the  different  states.  In  this 
confused  state  of  affairs  there  appeared  at  Athens  a  new  leader, 
a  man  who  was  to  exercise  a  remarkable  influence  during  the 
remaining  years  of  the  war.  This  man  was  Alcibi'ades,  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  and  unprincipled  characters  that  Athens 
ever  produced.  Fascinating  in  person,  descended  from  a  noble 
family,  related  to  Pericles,  a  wayward  pupil  of  Soc 'rates,  he  be- 
came a  political  adventurer,  selfish,  ambitious,  cunning,  and 
unscrupulous.  Under  his  influence  the  Athenians  were  iirOw 
allured  into  an  expedition  which  proved  the  most  disastrous 
in   their  history. 

In  Sicily  lay  an  important  part  of  the  Hellenic  world.  Here 
Greek  culture  had  found  a  genial  home.  Here  Greek  politics 
had  run  the  usual  course  from  tyranny  to  de-  ^«5m!?:^S!>k, 

mocracy,  which  fact  seemed  to  show  a  sym-  ^^^^^^^ti 
pathy  with  the  Athenian  spirit.  The  chief  B^^j^M 
city  of  the   island  was   Syracuse,  a  Dorian  wrk^^i^W 

colony  founded  by  Corinth,  and  hence  a  natu-  ^^^S^ 

ral  ally  of  Sparta.    The  reduction  of  Syracuse         ^A^^^^L 
would  open  the  way  for  a  western  Athenian    /- — ^^^^£^-^\ 
empire.     This  was  the  dazzling  scheme  advo-    I  \ 

cated  by  the  new  war  champion  Alcibiades.    | ] 

"It  is  impossible  for  us,"  he  said,  "to  mark 

At  r^TTiTAT)FS 

out  the  limits  of  our  dominion,  and  as  our 
policy  compels  us  to  continue  the  plan  of  reducing  others,  let 
us  make  this  expedition,  and  thus  prostrate  the  pride  of  the 
Peloponnesians  by  showing  that  we  care  not  for  the  present 


270  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

peace  ;  and  at  any  rate  let  us  liumble  the  Syracusans,  if  we  do 
not  extend  our  rule  over  the  whole  of  Hellas  "  (Thucydides, 
VI.,  16-17).  These  words  of  Alcibiades  became  the  policy  of 
Athens.  An  immense  fleet  was  prepared  and  dispatched  to 
Sicily  under  the  command  of  three  generals,  Alcibiades,  Nicias, 
and  Lam'achus  (415  b.c). 

Recall  and  Treachery  of  Alcibiades.  —  The  fleet  sailed  for  Sicily 
and  began  its  operations  in  the  vicinity  of  Syracuse  ;  when 
orders  came  from  Athens  commanding  Alcibiades  to  return  to 
the  city  to  answer  the  charge  of  sacrilege.  This  charge  was 
based  upon  an  act  which  had  occurred  before  the  sailing  of  the 
fleet.  In  one  night  the  numerous  busts  of  Hermes,  set  up  in 
different  parts  of  the  city  as  a  protection  from  evil,  were  muti- 
lated —  an  act  of  sacrilege  which  outraged  the  religious  sense 
of  the  whole  Athenian  people.  Suspicions  had  already  been 
cast  upon  Alcibiades,  who  was  known  to  be  reckless  and  pro- 
fane ;  but  before  the  expedition  set  sail  there  had  been  found 
no  evidence  sufficient  to  warrant  his  trial.  Since  then,  however, 
it  appeared  that  Alcibiades  had  profaned  the  Eleusinian  rites, 
by  engaging  with  his  companions  in  a  mock  celebration  of  the 
mysteries.  The  people  were  not  only  horrified  at  these  acts  of 
sacrilege  and  profanation,  but  believed  that  they  were  connected 
with  a  plan  to  overthrow  the  democracy;  thus  they  were  in- 
duced to  recall  Alcibiades  from  Sicily  and  to  place  him  upon 
trial.  But  Alcibiades,  instead  of  answering  the  call  of  his 
country  and  facing  the  charges  brought  against  him,  fled  to 
Sparta  and  became  an  open  enemy  of  Athens. 

The  Siege  of  Syracuse.  —  The  operations  against  Syracuse 
were  now  left  to  Nicias  and  Lamachus,  who  held  their  forces 
near  the  friendly  cities  of  Catana  and  Naxos  (map,  page  136). 
The  city  of  Syracuse  was  originally  built  on  the  little  island 
of  Ortyg'ia ;  but  it  had  now  been  extended  so  as  to  occupy  a 
part  of  the  mainland,  called  Achradi'na,  which  was  fortified  by 
an  old  wall.  By  a  clever  ruse  Nicias  succeeded  in  landing  the 
Athenian  force  southwest  of  the  city  on  the  shore  of  what  was 
called  the  Great  Harbor.     He  there  fortified  a  camp,  and  won 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR 


271 


an  important  victory  over  the  enemy.  At  the  approach  of  winter 
he  withdrew  his  forces  to  Catana.  In  the  meantime  the  Syra- 
cusans  threw  up  a  new  and  stronger  wall  in  front  of  the  old 
one  to  protect  the  city,  and  sent  to  Corinth  and  Sparta  for  help. 
In  the    spring,    Nicias  


Bay  of  Thapsua 


landed  his  entire  force  at 
Thapsus  to  the  northwest 
of  Syracuse,  stormed  the 
heights  of  Epip'olse,  and 
took  a  strong  position  in 
front  of  the  Syracusan 
walls,  known  as  "the 
Circle."  This  he  fortified 
with  the  intention  of  ex- 
tending his  siege  lines  on 
the  south  to  the  Great 
Harbor,  and  on  the  north 
to  the  Bay  of  Thapsus. 
By  so  doing  he  would  cut 
off  Syracuse  from  all  com- 
munications by  land.  The 
Syracusan s  tried  to  pre- 
vent the  extension  of  the 
siege  wall  to  the  south  by 
throwing  up  two  cross  walls.  But  these  were  stormed  in 
succession ;  and  although  Lamachus  was  killed,  the  Athenian 
siege  wall  was  extended  to  the  Great  Harbor.  Here  had  been 
collected  in  the  meantime  the  Athenian  fleet.  Nicias,  thinking 
that  his  cause  was  the  same  as  won,  failed  to  follow  up  his  suc- 
cess by  extending  his  northern  siege  w^all  to  the  Bay  of  Thapsus. 
Sparta  sends  Aid  to  Syracuse.  —  The  war,  up  to  this  time, 
seemed  to  be  a  succession  of  Athenian  victories.  Nicias  had, 
with  the  aid  of  his  able  colleague,  Lamachus,  inflicted  many 
defeats  upon  the  enemy,  and  had  practically  put  Syracuse  in 
a  state  of  siege.  But  from  this  time  all  was  changed ;  and 
this   change  was  due  largely  to  the  influence  of  Alci blades. 


Syracuse  anb  Vicinity 

Athenian  camp  ;  &,  c,  first  two  cross  walls, 
which  the  Syracusans  lost;  rf,  third  cross 
wall,  which  the  Syracusans  held 


272  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

While  the  Spartans  were  hesitating  as  to  whether  they  should 
send  aid  to  Syracuse,  they  were  spurred  on  by  the  words  of 
the  Athenian  traitor.  He  assured  them  that  he  had  no  love 
for  Athens  or  its  democratic  institutions ;  that  Athens  desired 
to  conquer  not  only  Sicily  but  the  Peloponnesus ;  that  two 
lines  of  policy  should  be  pursued  by  Sparta :  (1)  to  send  strong 
reenforcements  to  Syracuse,  and  (2)  to  seize  and  fortify  Dece- 
le'a  in  Attica,  and  thus  threaten  Athens  at  her  very  walls. 
The  Spartans  followed  the  advice  of  Alcibiades.  They  seized 
Decelea,  from  which  they  wasted  the  fields  of  Attica;  and 
they  sent  their  ablest  living  general,  Gylip'pus,  to  the  aid  of 
Syracuse.  Upon  his  arrival  Gylippus  seized  the  heights  of 
Epipolae  and  built  a  strong  cross  wall  so  as  to  prevent  the 
Athenians  from  any  further  operations  toward  the  Bay  of 
Thapsus  on  the  north.  He  then  collected  all  the  vessels  pos- 
sible and  shut  up  the  Athenian  fleet  in  the  Great  Harbor  on 
the  south.  By  these  two  strategic  strokes  the  Athenians  in- 
stead of  the  Syracusans  were  put  in  a  state  of  blockade. 

Destruction  of  the  Athenian  Army.  —  The  rest  of  this  cam- 
paign was  nothing  but  a  series  of  Athenian  disasters.  Athens 
sent  her  best  living  general,  Demosthenes,  to  the  aid  of  Nicias. 
With  a  strong  armament  Demosthenes  was  able  to  enter  the 
Great  Harbor  and  reach  the  Athenian  camp.  His  practiced 
eye  took  in  the  desperate  situation.  He  saw  that  the  heights 
of  Epipolse  must  be  retaken,  and  that  the  Syracusans  must  be 
dislodged  from  their  third  cross  wall,  which  prevented  the 
extension  of  the  siege  lines  to  the  Bay  of  Thapsus  (see 
map,  page  271).  Demosthenes  made  the  attempt  to  do  this ; 
but  his  army  was  severely  defeated  by  Gylippus.  Noth- 
ing was  now  left  except  to  abandon  the  expedition;  but 
the  mouth  of  the  harbor  was  held  by  the  Syracusans  with 
a  fleet  reenforced  from  Corinth.  The  attempt  to  escape 
from  the  harbor  brought  on  a  series  of  naval  battles  in 
which  the  Athenian  fleet  was  practically  destroyed.  The  at- 
tempt of  the  army  to  retreat  by  an  overland  march  to  Catana 
was  also  foiled.     Most  of  the  soldiers  were  captured,  and 


THE   PELOPONNESIAN   WAR  273 

Demosthenes  and  Nicias  were  condemned  to  death.  "Thus 
ended,"  says  Thucydides,  "  the  greatest  undertaking  of  this 
war,  and  I  think  the  greatest  in  which  the  Greeks  were  ever 
concerned,  the  most  splendid  for  the  conquerors,  and  the  most 
disastrous  for  the  conquered ;  for  they  suffered  no  common 
defeat,  but  were  absolutely  annihilated,  —  army,  fleet,  and  all, 
—  and  of  many  thousands  who  went  away,  only  a  handful  ever 
saw  their  homes  again  "  (Thucydides,  YII.,  87). 

III.  From  the  Siciliax  Disaster  to  the  Eall  of  Athens 
(413-404  B.C.) 

Last  Phase  of  the  War.  —  The  terrible  disaster  at  Syracuse 
was  the  prelude  to  the  fall  of  Athens.  Her  final  ruin  was 
now  only  a  question  of  time.  But  this  last  phase  of  the  war 
presents  to  us  a  number  of  striking  features.  It  shows  us, 
as  we  have  not  seen  before, — except  perhaps  in  the  Persian 
wars,  —  the  great  fortitude  and  reserve  strength  of  the  Athe- 
nians. It  also  shows  us  the  real  weakness  of  the  Athenian 
empire,  by  the  general  disposition  of  her  allies  to  revolt  from 
her  as  soon  as  her  power  was  crippled.  We  shall  also  see,  as 
a  result  of  the  revolt  of  her  allies,  the  war  transferred  from 
the  west  to  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor.  Still  further,  the  trans- 
ference of  the  war  to  Asia  leads  to  the  interference  of  Persia 
once  more  in  Grecian  affairs.  And  during  this  whole  period 
we  can  not  lose  sight  of  the  intrigues  of  that  accomplished 
traitor,  Alcibiades. 

The  Intrigues  of  Alcibiades.  —  So  far  the  schemes  of  Alcibiades 
had  been  successful.  Although  the  author  of  the  Sicilian  ex- 
pedition, he  was  glad  to  see  it  fail.  He  also  had  the  satisfac- 
tion of  seeing  Sparta  maintain  her  garrison  at  Decelea,  which 
was  a  continual  thorn  in  the  side  of  Athens.  He  now  con- 
tinued his  intrigues  against  his  native  city  by  inducing  Sparta 
to  send  a  fleet  to  stir  up  a  revolt  among  the  Athenian  allies 
on  the  Asiatic  coast.  In  spite  of  these  efforts,  the  Athe- 
nians were  able  to   keep  hold  of  the  island  of  Samos  as  a 


274  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

base  of  operations,  and  succeeded  in  reducing  many  of  the 
revolted  cities.  The  Spartans  began  to  suspect  the  loyalty  of 
Alcibiades ;  and,  fearing  for  his  life,  he  now  turned  traitor 
to  Sparta  and  took  up  his  residence  with  Tissapher'nes,  the 
Persian  satrap  at  Sardis.  Here  he  began  a  new  set  of 
intrigues,  apparently  against  both  Sparta  and  Athens,  but 
really  to  advance  his  own  interests.  He  assured  Tissaphernes 
that  Persia  would  be  the  gainer  by  not  taking  sides  with 
either  party,  but  by  letting  them  wear  each  other  out.  The 
Persian  authority  might  then  be  established  over  all  the 
Greek  cities.  For  a  time  this  adroit  scheme  seemed  to  work 
to  his  satisfaction  ;  but  when  he  began  to  see  that  his  influ- 
ence was  waning  with  the  Persian  satrap,  he  entered  upon  his 
most  audacious  line  of  diplomacy.  This  was  nothing  less  than 
to  bring  about  his  own  restoration  to  power  at  Athens.  The 
Athenian  assembly  had  already  condemned  him  to  death; 
and  hence  a  political  revolution  at  Athens  would  be  necessary 
for  him  to  accomplish  his  purpose. 

The  ''  Four  Hundred  "  at  Athens.  —  Before  attempting  to  stir 
up  a  revolution  at  Athens,  Alcibiades  began  his  new  scheme  by 
winning  over  to  his  side  some  of  the  generals  of  the  fleet  at 
Samos.  He  argued  that  Athens  was  doomed  unless  she  could 
obtain  the  aid  of  Persia;  that  Persia  was  opposed  to  a  demo- 
cratic government;  but  that  he  could  obtain  a  friendly  treaty 
with  Persia,  provided  an  oligarchy  was  set  up  at  Athens  in 
place  of  the  present  democracy.  Those  generals  who  were  al- 
ready well  disposed  toward  oligarchy,  accepted  his  view,  and 
Pisan'der  was  dispatched  to  Athens  to  bring  about  the  desired 
revolution.  With  the  aid  of  the  oligarchical  party,  the  consti- 
tution was  changed.  All  power  was  now  placed  in  the  hands 
of  a  Council  of  Four  Hundred,  with  the  right  to  consult,  if 
they  wished,  with  a  body  of  five  thousand  selected  citizens. 
The  new  council  began  its  work  by  the  attempt  to  effect  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  Sparta ;  but  this  attempt  proved  a  failure. 

Restoration  and  Disgrace  of  Alcibiades.  —  AVhile  this  revolu- 
tion was  going  on  in  Athens,  the  great  body  of  the  Athenian 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN   WAR  275 

army  and  fleet  at  Samos  declared  itself  against  the  revolution, 
and  claimed  to  be  the  only  legitimate  government  of  Athens. 
Not,  perhaps,  fully  aware  of  his  intrigues,  and  trusting  that 
he  might  have  some  influence  with  Persia,  the  soldiers  elected 
Alcibiades  as  one  of  their  generals.  In  this  position  Alcibiades 
assumed  the  part  of  a  patriot  and  showed  his  most  remarkable 
abilities,  which  were  devoted  unreservedly  to  the  success  of 
the  Athenian  cause.  The  Spartans  and  their  allies  were  now 
operating  in  the  Hellespont.  Here  the  Athenians  obtained  a 
number  of  victories,  and  under  Alcibiades  destroyed  the  entire 
Peloponnesian  fleet  near  Cyzicus.  The  patriotic  traitor  also 
captured  Chalcedon  and  Byzantium  on  the  Bosphorus,  and  the 
Athenian  commerce  was  opened  once  more  to  the  Euxine. 

Flushed  with  these  victories,  Alcibiades  returned  to  Athens, 
where  the  government  of  the  Four  Hundred  had,  in  the  mean- 
time, been  overthrown,  and  the  democracy  reestablished.  The 
Athenians  received  him  with  open  arms  ;  and  the  decree  against 
him  was  annulled.  To  show  the  Athenians  his  piety  and  his 
courage,  Alcibiades  engaged  in  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.  The 
procession  had  been  obliged  for  the  past  seven  years  to  go  to 
Eleusis  by  sea ;  but  Alcibiades  now  conducted  it  by  the  usual 
"  sacred  way  "  in  the  face  of  the  Spartan  garrison  at  Decelea. 
He  was  then  appointed  sole  general  of  the  Athenian  fleet,  with 
power  to  conduct  the  war  on  the  Asiatic  coast.  But  on  an 
unfortunate  day,  while  he  was  temporarily  absent,  his  fleet  suf- 
fered a  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Spartan  admiral,  Lysan'der. 
For  this  failure  the  Athenians  deposed  him  from  his  command, 
and  he  retired  in  disgrace  to  his  own  castle  on  the  Hellespont. 

The  Last  Battles  of  the  "War.  —  It  required  two  more  battles 
to  finish  the  war.  One  of  these  was  fought  (406  e.g.)  near  the 
small  islands  of  Arginu'sse,  between  Lesbos  and  the  mainland, 
where  the  Athenians  gained  a  victory.  But  this  victory  proved 
a  disgrace  to  Athens ;  since  she  condemned  to  death  the  gen- 
erals who  had  won  it,  on  the  ground  that  they  failed  to  rescue 
their  shipwrecked  comrades  —  a  thing  which,  under  the  cir- 
cumstances, was  doubtless  impossible.     The  last  battle  was 


276  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

fought  (405  B.C.)  in  the  Hellespont  near  the  mouth  of  a  little 
river  called  ^gospot'ami  ("  Goat's  Streams  ").  A  new  Spartan 
fleet  had  been  built  with  the  aid  of  Persian  gold,  furnished  by 
the  younger  Cyrus,  the  new  Persian  governor  in  Asia  Minor. 
With  this  new  armament  Lysander  captured  the  entire  Athe- 
nian fleet,  and  this  event  destroyed  the  maritime  power  of  Athens. 
Lysander  followed  up  his  victory  by  reducing  the  cities  on  the 
Hellespont  and  Bosphorus.  The  allies  fell  away,  and  nothing 
was  now  left  for  Sparta  but  to  reduce  the  city  of  Athens  itself. 

The  Fall  of  Athens  (404  b.c).  —  In  a  short  time  Lysander 
sailed  into  the  Saronic  Gulf  and  blockaded  the  Piraeus ;  and 
the  Spartan  army  came  down  from  Decelea  and  encamped  be- 
fore the  walls  of  the  city.  Without  money,  ships,  allies,  or 
food  supply,  Athens  refused  to  surrender.  It  was  only  famine 
and  starvation  that  brought  the  city  to  terms.  Corinth  and 
Thebes  demanded  that  the  city  be  totally  destroyed.  But 
Sparta  refused  to  destroy  a  city  that  had  done  so  much  for 
Greece  in  the  past.  Athens  was,  however,  required  to  destroy 
the  Long  Walls  and  the  fortifications  of  the  Piraeus,  and  to 
become  a  subject  ally  of  Sparta.  Accepting  these  conditions, 
Athens  opened  her  gates  to  the  enemy,  and  the  Athenian 
empire  was  no  more. 

Thus  ended  the  Peloponnesian  war,  which  had  lasted  for 
twenty-seven  years,  which  had  desolated  nearly  every  part  of 
the  Greek  world,  and  which,  in  spite  of  the  courage  displayed, 
had  revealed  some  of  the  weakest  and  worst  phases  of  the 
Greek  character  —  political  jealousy,  local  self-interest,  deceit, 
and  cruelty. 

SELECTIONS  FOR   READING 

Smith,  Ch.  25,  "Causes  of  the  Peloponnesian  War"  (10), i 
Timayenis,  Part  V.,  Ch.  1,  "Commencement  of  Hostilities  "  (11). 
Bury,  Ch.  11,  "Decline  and  Downfall  of  the  Athenian  Empire"  (10). 
Allcroft,  Vol.  III.,  Ch.  0,  "  Bras  id  as  and  Cleon  ''  (10). 
Holm,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  21,  "  Corey ra,  Potidsea,  and  Platsea"  (11). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


THE  LATER   STRUGGLES  FOR   SUPREMACY  277 

Curtius,  Vol.  IIL,  Ch.  5,  "The  Decelean  War"  (11). 
riutarch,  "  Alcibiades,"  "Lysander,"  "Nicias"  (13). 
Thucydides,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  35-46,  Funeral  Oration  of  Pericles  (13). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  Sicilian  Expedition.  —Oman,  Ch.  32  (10)  ;  Timayenis,  Vol.  I., 
pp.  352-359  (11)  ;  Cox,  Gen.  Hist.,  Bk.  II.,  Ch.  7  (10)  ;  Cox,  Athenian 
Empire,  Ch.  5  (16)  ;  Bury,  Ch.  11,  §§3-5  (10)  ;  Allcroft,  Vol.  IIL,  Ch.  8 
(10)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  IL,  Ch.  27  (11)  ;  Curtius,  Vol.  IIL,  pp.  340-413  (11). 


CHAPTER   XXII 

THE   LATER   STRUGGLES   FOR   SUPREMACY 

I.   The  Supremacy  of  Sparta 

The  New  Spartan  Empire.  —  The  political  history  of  Greece 
immediately  after  the  fall  of  Athens  is  a  period  of  renewed  agi- 
tation, jealousy,  and  strife,  and  illustrates  still  further  the  inca- 
pacity of  the  Greeks  to  form  a  national  state.  With  too  great 
a  passion  for  local  liberty,  they  were  unwilling  to  make  con- 
cessions for  the  general  good.  When  one  city  gained  the 
supremacy,  it  used  its  power  for  its  own  interests  rather  than 
for  the  common  welfare.  Sparta  now  succeeded  for  a  time 
to  the  empire  which  Athens  was  compelled  to  give  up.  The 
cities  of  Greece  had  been  called  upon  to  revolt  against  Athens 
in  order  to  obtain  their  liberties.  But  they  soon  found  that  the 
tyranny  of  Athens  was  light  compared  with  the  despotism  of 
Sparta.  As  Sparta  was  the  patron  of  oligarchy,  she  compelled 
the  cities  to  give  up  their  democratic  governments.  A  military 
governor,  called  a  "  harmost,"  was  placed  over  most  of  them;  and 
whatever  civil  authority  there  was  to  be  exercised,  was  placed 
in  a  board  of  ten  persons,  called  a  "decarchy."  Under  such  a 
government  the  property  and  lives  of  the  people  could  not 
be  safe. 

morey's  greek  hist.  — 17 


278  THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 

In  Athens  there  was  established  a  board  of  thirty  oligarchs 
—  who  have  received  the  name  of  the  "  Thirty  Tyrants  "  (404- 
403  B.C.).  Under  their  leader,  Crit'ias,  their  rule  was  harsh 
and  oppressive  and  resulted  in  anarchy  and  a  reign  of  terror. 
Citizens  were  put  to  death,  and  property  was  confiscated  with- 
out mercy.  It  was  only  by  a  popular  revolution  led  by  the 
patriot  Thrasybu'lus  that  the  Thirty  were  deposed  and  a 
democratic  form  of  government  reestablished.  This  was 
sufficient  to  show  that  the  imperial  rule  of  Sparta  could  not 
continue  without  opposition. 

Persia  and  the  "  March  of  the  Ten  Thousand  *'  (401-400  b.c).  — 
While  Sparta  w^as  trying  to  establish  her  authority  over  the 
cities  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  an  event  occurred  which 
resulted  in  bringing  her  into  conflict  with  Persia.  This  event 
was  the  expedition  made  by  Cyrus  the  Younger,  the  Persian 
governor  of  Asia  Minor,  who  had  espoused  the  cause  of  Sparta 
in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  In  order  to  place  himself  on  the 
Persian  throne  in  place  of  his  brother,  Artaxerx'es,  Cyrus 
enlisted  in  his  service  about  ten  or  twelve  thousand  Asiatic 
Greeks,  besides  a  large  number  of  native  troops.  With  these 
he  pushed  his  way  through  Phrygia,  Cilicia,  Syria,  and 
Mesopotamia  toward  the  Persian  capital  at  Susa.  He  met 
his  brother,  Artaxerxes,  near  Babylon  and  fought  a  battle  at 
Cunax'a,  in  whicli  the  Greek  forces  defeated  the  great  army 
of  the  king.  But  here  Cyrus  was  killed,  and  the  other  leaders 
were  entrapped  and  put  to  death.  The  Greeks  chose  new 
leaders,  chief  among  whom  was  Xen'ophon.  They  then 
began  their  long  and  wearisome  march  homeward  through  a 
hostile  country.  They  moved  up  the  banks  of  the  Tigris 
River,  harassed  by  the  army  of  Tissaphernes,  through  the 
snows  of  Armenia,  suffering  from  cold  and  hunger,  and  finally 
reached  the  shores  of  the  Euxine  at  Trapezus,  where  they 
raised  the  joyful  shout,  "The  sea,  the  sea!"  Hence'  they 
continued  their  retreat,  partly  by  water  and  partly  by  land, 
until  they  reached  the  friendly  city  of  Chalcedon  and  finally 
the  shores  of  the  MoiesLn  Sea.     This  famous  "March  of  the 


THE  LATER  STRUGGLES  FOR  SUPREMACY  279 


jVL\rch  of  the  Ten  Thousand 

Ten  Thousand,"  recorded  by  Xenophon  himself,  revealed 
the  weakness  of  the  Persian  empire  and  the  superiority  of 
the  Greek  soldiers,  and  led  directly  to  a  conflict  between 
Persia  and  Sparta. 

War  between  Persia  and  Sparta  (399-394  b.c).  —  The  rebel- 
lious attempt  of  Cyrus,  assisted  as  it  was  by  Greeks,  aroused 
the  wrath  of  the  Persian  king.  He  therefore  appointed  his 
faithful  general,  Tissaphernes,  as  governor  of  Asia  Minor, 
with  orders  to  reduce  all  the  Grecian  cities  on  the  coast. 
Sparta  now  regarded  herself  as  the  protector  of  the  Greeks, 
and  answered  their  call  for  help.  The  war  against  Persia 
which  followed  was  carried  on  for  six  years,  at  first  under 
inferior  generals,  but  finally  under  the  Spartan  king  Agesi- 
la'us.  This  able  commander  defeated  Tissaphernes,  recov- 
ered the  Asiatic  cities,  carried  the  war  into  the  enemy's 
country,  and  threatened  to  overthrow  the  empire  itself.  To 
relieve  his  empire  from  the  presence  of  the  Spartan  army, 
the  Persian  monarch  sent  an  emissary  to  Greece  with  bags 
of  gold  to  stir  up  a  revolt  among  the  subjects  of  Sparta  in 


280  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

Europe.  The  dangers  at  home  compelled  the  Spartans  to 
recall  Agesilaus  from  Asia,  and  the  conquest  of  Persia  was 
delayed  for  more  than  half  a  century. 

Revolt  of  the  Greeks  against  Sparta  (395-387  b.c).  —  When 
Agesilaus  reached  Sparta,  he  found  a  large  part  of  Greece 
united  in  an  attempt  to  throw  off  the  Spartan  yoke.  Thebes, 
Corinth,  Athens,  and  Argos  had  formed  a  league  for  the  libera- 
tion of  the  Hellenic  states.  The  war  which  ensued  is  called 
the  Corinthian  war,  because  it  was  waged  to  a  great  extent  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  isthmus.  Besides  many  engagements  fought 
on  land,  a  decisive  naval  battle  was  fought  near  Cnidus  on 
the  southwest  coast  of  Asia  Minor  (394  b.c).  In  this 
battle  the  Greek  allies,  under  the  Athenian  general  Conon, 
assisted  by  the  Persians,  defeated  the  opposing  fleet,  and 
practically  destroyed  the  maritime  power  of  Sparta.  Conon 
freed  the  cities  on  the  Asiatic  coasts  from  the  Spartan  power, 
and  then  sailed  to  Athens.  Under  his  direction,  the  forti- 
fications of  the  Piraeus  and  the  Long  Walls,  which  had  been 
razed  after  the  Peloponnesian  war,  were  rebuilt.  The  stress 
of  the  war  was  so  great  that  Sparta  appealed  to  Persia  to  act 
as  arbiter  and  to  settle  the  affairs  of  Greece,  This  resulted  in 
the  so-called  Peace  of  Antal'cidas  (387  b.c).  By  this  peace 
the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  were  once  more  given  up  to  the 
Persian  king;  the  islands  of  Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scyros 
were  given  to  Athens ;  and  all  the  cities  of  Greece  proper 
were  henceforth  to  be  "free  and  independent." 

Further  Aggressions  of  Sparta  (387-379  b.c).  —  It  is  true  that 
Sparta  had  by  the  late  war  lost  her  maritime  power  and  her 
control  of  the  Asiatic  cities.  But  still,  by  the  terms  of  the 
Peace  of  Antalcidas,  the  bonds  which  had  united  her  enemies 
were  broken ;  and  she  was  now  free  to  deal  with  them  sepa- 
rately. She  claimed  the  right  to  carry  into  execution  the 
terms  of  the  peace,  and  made  her  despotic  influence  felt  every- 
where. To  ofl:'set  the  power  of  Thebes  in  Boeotia,  she  caused 
the  city  of  Plataea  to  be  rebuilt.  To  punish  her  enemies  in 
Arcadia,  she  razed  the  walls  of  Mantine'a.    In  order  to  prevent 


THE  LATER  STRUGGLES  FOR   SUPREMACY 


281 


a  rival  power  from  growing  up  outside  of  Greece,  she  waged 
war  against  the  newly  formed  confederacy  in  Clialcidice. 
This  league  had  grown  up  from  a  union  of  the  Greek  and 
Macedonian  cities  under  the  headship  of  Olynthus ;  it  was  now 
broken  up  by  Sparta  in  the  so-called  "  Olynthiac  war "  (382- 
379  B.C.).  Tor  fear  that  Thebes  might  rise  against  her  while 
her  armies  were  engaged  in  Chalcidice,  Sparta  seized  the  Theban 
citadel,  the  Cadmea,  and  placed  within  it  a  Spartan  garrison. 
This  most  arrogant  piece  of  aggression  led  to  the  uprising  of 
Thebes  with  other  states,  and  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Spartan 
supremacy. 


II.    The  Supremacy  of  Thebes 

The  Liberation  of  Thebes  (379  b.c).  —  The  story  of  the  revolu- 
tion which  resulted  in  freeing  Thebes  and  the  rest  of  Greece 
from  Spartan  domination. 


Gulf  of^orinth 


BfEOTIA 


centers  about  the  names 
of  two  great  Theban  pa- 
triots —  Pelop'idas  and 
Epaminon'das.  Pelopi- 
das  was  a  Theban  who  had 
taken  refuge  in  Athens. 
With  a  band  of  compan- 
ions he  entered  his  native 
city  in  disguise,  killed 
the  oligarchic  leaders,  and 
with  the  aid  of  the  people  forced  the  Spartan  garrison  to  with- 
draw from  the  citadel.  Thebes  was  thus  made  free.  Under 
the  guidance  of  Epaminon'das  the  other  cities  of  Boeotia  gained 
their  independence,  and  formed  a  new  Boeotian  confederacy  to 
withstand  the  power  of  Sparta. 

The  New  Confederacy  of  Athens  (377  b.c).  —  Athens  took 
courage  from  the  success  of  Thebes,  and  gathered  together 
many  of  her  old  allies  in  a  new  Athenian  confederacy.  She 
built  a  new  navy  and  regained  something  of  her  old  maritime 


282 


THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


power.  She  at  first  aided  Thebes  in  resisting  Sparta;  and 
then,  envious  of  the  growing  power  of  Thebes,  she  formed  a 
treaty  with  Sparta.  In  the  midst  of  these  jealous  intrigues 
and  the  attending  conflicts,  Athens  proposed  that  a  general 
conference  be  held  at  Sparta  for  the  pacification  of  Greece. 
It  was  there  proposed  that  the  Peace  of  Antalcidas  should  be 
renewed  —  that  all  states  should  remain  free  and  independent. 
Athens  and  Thebes  wished  this  to  mean  that  all  cities  should 
be  free  to  form  alliances  if  they  chose,  and  thus  to  preserve 
their  newly  formed  leagues.  But  Sparta  refused  to  accept  this 
meaning,  although  she  wished  still  to  retain  her  hold  upon  her 
own  allies.  The  treaty  was  hence  signed  without  Sparta. 
While  Athens  had  been  able  to  recover  some  of  her  influence, 
Thebes  and  Sparta  were  now  the  great  rival  powers  of  Greece. 
War  between  Thebes  and  Sparta;  Battle  of  Leuctra. —  Sparta 
was  at  this  time  as  jealous  of  Thebes  as  she  had  once  been  of 
Athens.  She  therefore  sent  an  army  into  Boeotia  to  destroy 
the  newly  formed  confederacy,  but  was  defeated  in  the  memo- 
rable battle  of  Leuctra  (371*  b.c).  The  ruling  spirit  in  Boeotia 
was  Epaminondas,  the  great  Theban 
patriot,  whose  name  is  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  among  Grecian  states- 
men and  generals.  To  him  is  due  the 
new  arrangement  of  the  Grecian  pha- 
lanx which  won  the  battle  of  Leuctra. 
He  seems  to  have  discovered  one  of 
the  great  principles  of  successful  war- 
fare—  that  is,  to  be  stronger  than  the 
enemy  at  the  point  of  contact.  The 
old  Greek  phalanx  was  arranged  in  lines  eight  men  deep. 
The  Spartan  army  was  so  formed  at  Leuctra.  Epaminondas 
also  arranged  the  main  part  of  his  line  in  the  same  way.  But 
on  his  left  wing,  which  he  intended  to  be  the  point  of  contact, 
he  arranged  the  phalanx  in  the  form  of  an  irresistible  column 
fifty  men  deep,  guarded  on  the  extreme  left  by  a  body  of  cav- 
alry.    In  this  way  he  crushed  the  Spartan  right  wingj  and  the 


Battle. OF  Leuctra, 
B.C.  371 


THE  LATER  STRUGGLES  FOR  SUPREMACY^  283 

rest  of  his  army  was  pushed  forward  to  complete  the  victory. 
The  battle  of  Leuctra  had  two  important  effects :  first,  it  intro- 
duced a  new  feature  into  ancient  warfare,  which  was  afterward 
employed  by  the  Macedonians ;  secondly,  it  insured  for  the 
time  being  the  ascendency  of  Thebes. 

Extension  of  the  Theban  Power.  —  The  power  of  Thebes  was 
now  supreme  in  central  Greece.  To  extend  her  influence  into 
Peloponnesus,  Epaminondas  invaded  this  territory,  and  deliv- 
ered the  people  from  Spartan  control.  In  Arcadia,  he  helped 
the  city  of  Mantinea  to  rebuild  its  prostrate  walls,  and  gath- 
ered the  Arcadian  towns  into  an  independent  union,  with  the 
new  city  of  Megalop'olis  as  their  capital.  In  Messenia  he 
rescued  the  population  from  their  long  serfdom,  and  built  for 
them  a  new  city,  Messe'ne,  on  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Itho'me.  Sparta, 
fearing  for  her  safety,  appealed  to  Athens  for  assistance. 
Athens  accordingly  sent  an  army  into  the  Peloponnesus  to 
prevent  the  further  encroachment  of  Thebes. 

While  Thebes  was  thus  extending  her  power  to  the  south 
under  Epaminondas,  she  was  also  extending  her  power  to 
the  north  under  Pelopidas.  She  brought  Thessaly  under  her 
authority,  and  even  established  influential  relations  with 
Macedonia.  It  was  not  long  before  troubles  arose  again  in  the 
Peloponnesus.  Epaminon'das  again  invaded  the  country  and 
met  the  Spartans  at  Mantinea  (362  b.c),  where  he  gained  a 
victory  over  the  Spartans  and  their  allies ;  but  at  this  battle 
Epaminondas  was  killed.  As  the  Thebans,  without  their 
leader,  were  unable  to  follow  up  their  victory,  peace  was  estab- 
lished. With  the  decline  of  the  Theban  power,  Athens  was 
once  more  regarded  as  the  leading  city  of  Greece. 

Failure  of   the  Grecian    State  System The  supremacy   of 

Thebes  had  failed  to  create  a  national  state  for  Greece,  just  as 
the  supremacy  of  Sparta  and  that  of  Athens  had  failed  before. 
The  Greeks  had,  it  is  true,  been  able  to  develop  a  city  state 
with  local  self-government,  far  in  advance  of  the  Oriental  sys- 
tem of  government.  But  they  did  not  possess  the  capacity  to 
organize  their  cities  into  a  single  state,  based  upon  their  com- 


284  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

mon  nationality.  Their  various  leagues  failed,  because  under 
the  predominance  of  one  city  the  rights  of  the  others  were 
disregarded.  With  all  their  love  of  liberty  springing  from 
their  own  self-interest,  they  failed  to  recognize  that  other  essen- 
tial principle  of  good  government,  the  love  of  a  higher  law 
based  upon  the  common  welfare. 

III.    The  Supremacy  of  Syracuse  in  Sicily 

Parallel  History  of  Sicily  and  Greece.  —  In  tracing  the  gen- 
eral course  of  Greek  history,  we  have  seen  the  growth  of  a 
number  of  city  states,  which  were  agitated  by  political  revolu- 
tion, and  in  which  tyranny,  oligarchy,  and  democracy  were 
contending  for  mastery.  We  have  also  seen  Greece,  under 
the  leadership  of  Athens,  delivered  from  the  invasion  of 
Persia,  and  developing  a  high  form  of  culture.  We  have, 
moreover,  seen  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  some  one  city  to 
lift  itself  into  a  position  of  supremacy  over  the  others.  There 
is  a  general  similarity  between  these  movements  in  Greece 
proper  and  those  in  western  Hellas.  In  Sicily  we  see  a 
similar  movement  in  the  development  of  a  large  number  of 
cities  disturbed  by  political  revolution;  a  similar  conflict 
against  a  foreign  enemy  ;  a  similar  development  of  a  high 
intellectual  culture ;  and  a  similar  tendency  toward  supremacy 
on  the  part  of  one  city.  But  the  predominant  city  in  Sicily 
was  not  Athens  or  Sparta  or  Thebes,  but  Syracuse ;  and  the 
foreign  enemy  of  Sicily  was  not  Persia,  bat  Carthage. 

Carthage  and  Syracuse.  —  From  very  early  times  the  Car- 
thaginians desired  to  get  control  of  the  island  of  Sicily;  and 
their  invasions  had  been  repelled  under  the  leadership  of 
Syracuse.  On  the  same  day,  it  is  said,  that  the  Greeks  won 
their  victory  over  the  Persians  at  Salamis,  the  Sicilians  won 
a  decisive  battle  over  the  Carthaginians  at  Himera  (480  b.c). 
Being  relieved  for  a  time  from  these  foreign  enemies,  the 
Sicilian  cities  pursued  their  steady  course  of  culture  and  their 
varied  course  of  political  revolution.     The  Sicilian  expedition, 


THE  LATER  STRUGGLES  FOR  SUPREMACY 


285 


which  proved  so  disastrous  to  Athens,  gave  a  new  impulse  to 
the  ambition  of  Syracuse,  and  under  various  governors  we  see 
her  occupying  a  leading  position  in  Sicily,  and  even  in  Magna 
Graecia. 

Dionysius  the  Elder,  and  the  Younger.  —  A  few  years  after 
the  destruction  of  the  Athenian  fleet  at  Syracuse,  the  Cartha- 
ginians made  a  new  and  more  vigorous  attempt  to  subdue  the 
island.  They  captured  the  cities  of  Selinus,  Himera  (409  b.c), 
and  Agrigentum  (406  b.c).  In  their  extremity  the  Syracusans 
chose  Dionys'ius  the  Elder  as  their  leader  in  war,  and  from 
this  position  he  became  a  tyrant.  He  was  a  man  of  varied 
virtues  and  vices,  of 
unusual  clemency  to 
a  vanquished  foe,  and 
of  unwonted  cruelty 
to  his  own  subjects. 
His  great  achieve- 
ment was  the  driving 
back  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians to  the  west- 
ern extremity  of  the 
island,  and  the  de- 
fense of  Syracuse  by 
an  enlarged  fortification,  which  took  in  the  heights  of  Epipolae 
(see  map,  page  271).  He  also  brought  under  his  control  many 
of  the  cities  of  Sicily,  and  aspired  to  found  a  Syracusan  empire. 
He  entered  Italy  as  a  tribe  of  northern  barbarians  (the  Sabel- 
lians)  were  engaged  in  reducing  the  cities  of  the  southern 
peninsula.  Many  of  these  cities  in  Bruttium  he  subdued  and 
plundered,  and  others  in  lapygia  he  made  dependent  upon 
him ;  and  even  the  kingdom  of  Molos'sia,  across  the  Ionian 
Sea,  he  brought  under  his  influence.  He  adorned  Syracuse 
with  splendid  buildings  and  works  of.  art,  and  made  it  the 
home  of  noted  men ;  so  that  it  vied  with  Athens  as  the  most 
cultivated  city  of  the  Greek  world.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Dionysius  the  Younger,  who  had  none  of  the  remarkable 


Dominions  of  Dionysius,  379  b.c. 


286  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

abilities  of  his  father.  Under  his  rule,  the  city  rapidly  fell  into 
discord  and  anarchy,  from  which  it  was  rescued  by  Timo'leon. 
Timoleon  the  Liberator.  —  Suffering  under  the  weak  rule  of 
the  Younger  Dionysius  and  threatened  again  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians, Syracuse  appealed  to  the  mother  city  of  Corinth  for 
help.  Corinth  fitted  out  a  small  expedition,  and  appointed 
Timoleon,  one  of  her  citizens,  as  its  leader.  This  commander 
took  possession  of  the  citadel  of  Syracuse.  Then  advancing 
against  the  Carthaginians,  he  defeated  them  in  a  decisive  battle. 
There  were  other  cities  of  Sicily  which  were  ruled  by  tyrants. 
These  tyrants  he  expelled,  and  in  these  cities,  as  in  Syracuse, 
he  erected  democratic  governments.  With  the  expulsion  of 
the  Syracusan  tyrants,  the  cities  of  Magna  Grsecia  also  re- 
covered their  independence.  Thus  Timoleon  became  the  true 
liberator  of  western  Hellas.  When  he  had  accomplished  his 
great  mission,  he  laid  down  his  power  and  retired  to  private 
life.  Sicily  remained  a  flourishing  seat  of  Grecian  culture, 
but  in  its  jjolitical  life  the  island  soon  relapsed  into  the  dis- 
turbed condition  which  marked  the  rest  of  the  Greek  world. 

SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Timayenis,  Vol.  I.,  Part  VI.,  "  Hegemony  of  Sparta"  (11).^ 

Hohn,  Vol.  Ill,,  Ch.  5,  "  Arrogance  of  Sparta"  (11). 

Curtius,  Vol.  IV.,  Bk.  V.,  Ch.  1,  "Athens  under  the  Thirty"  (11). 

Sankey,  Ch.  9,  "Peace  of  Antalcidas  "  (16). 

Oman,  Ch.  36,  "  Attempts  to  overthrow  the  Spartan  Hegemony  "  (10). 

Smith,  Ch.  40,  "The  Supremacy  of  Thebes  "(10). 

Allcroft,  Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  6,  "  Sicilian  Affairs  "  (10). 

Plutarch,  "Agesilaus,"  "Pelopidas,"  "Timoleon"  (13). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  "  March  OF  the  Ten  Thousand."  —Smith,  Ch.  36  (10)  ;  Bury,  Ch. 
12,  §2,(10)  ;  Oman,  pp.  417-420  (10)  ;  Timayenis,  pp.  417-420  (11)  ;  All- 
croft, Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  2  (10)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  III.,  pp.  2-6  (11)  ;  Curtius,  Vol. 
IV.,  pp.  185-192  (11)  ;  Xenophon,  Anabasis  (13). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 

THE  NEW  PHASE  OF  GREEK  CULTURE 
I.   Development  of  Pkose  Literature 

The  New  Culture  of  Greece.  —  From  what  we  have  seen  of 
the  political  agitation  and  decay  that  marked  the  Grecian  world 
after  the  age  of  Pericles,  we  might  conclude  that  the  culture 
of  Greece  would  show  similar  signs  of  decay.  But  this  was 
far  from  being  the  case.  Nothing  shows  so  clearly  the  strength 
and  elastic  nature  of  the  Grecian  mind  as  the  fact  that,  in  the 
midst  of  exhausting  wars  and  civil  strife,  literature  and  philos- 
ophy and  art  continued  to  flourish.  And  it  is  interesting  to 
know  that  Athens  still  remained  the  most  important  center  of 
this  culture.  But  the  culture  of  Athens  now  acquired  something 
of  a  new  character.  By  coming  into  contact  with  a  variety  of 
states  through  successive  alliances,  the  Athenians  became  less 
narrow  and  more  cosmopolitan.  Moreover,  the  dangers  and  dis- 
asters which  afflicted  Greece  made  the  thought  of  the  period 
perhaps  less  creative  and  spontaneous,  but  more  reflective  and 
critical.  We  may  see  less  of  the  high  emotional  elements  which 
show  themselves  in  poetry  ;  but  we  see  more  of  those  calmer 
intellectual  qualities  which  are  expressed  in  prose  literature  — 
history,  oratory,  and  philosophy. 

The  Athenian  Historians.  —  Foremost  among  the  historians 
of  this  time  are  Thucydides  and  Xenophon ;  and  of  the  great 
historians  of  Greece  and  perhaps  of  the  world,  Thucydides 
stands  preeminent.  He  may  be  regarded  as  the  father  of  sci- 
entific history.  His  subject  was  the  Peloponnesian  war  —  a 
war  in  which  he  had  taken  a  subordinate  part.  The  record 
which  he  has  left  us  of  this  war  is  perhaps  more  important  to 
civilization  than  the  war  itself.     The  war  marked  the  fall  of 

287 


288 


THE   ATHENIAN   ASCENDENCY 


Thucydides 


the  Athenian  empire ;  the  record  of  the  war  marked  the  begin- 
ning of  a  new  epoch  in  literature.  The  one  showed  the  politi- 
cal incapacity  of  the  Greeks ;  the  other  is  a  lasting  evidence  of 
their  great  intellectual  ability.     The  work  of  Thucydides   is 

marked  by  calm  judgment,  a  love 
of  truth,  honesty,  and  accuracy  in 
the  statement  of  facts,  and  a  per- 
ception of  the  relation  of  cause 
and  effect  in  historical  events. 
His  style,  though  sometimes  ob- 
scure, is  pure  and  forcible,  and 
withal  "classic,"  —  which  means 
"  the  absence  of  all  that  is  tawdry, 
the  absence  even  of  all  that  we 
call  florid,  a  certain  severity  and 
reticence,  which  are  as  marked  in 
the  prose  of  Thucydides  as  in  the 
marble  of  Phidias"  (Mahaffy). 
Xenophon  is  the  other  important  historian  of  this  period. 
He  can  scarcely  be  compared  with  Thucydides  as  an  historian, 
but  he  writes  in  an  easy  and  interesting  manner  upon  a  great 
variety  of  subjects.  His  "Anab'asis  "  tells  the  story  of  the 
March  of  the  Ten  Thousand,  in  which  he  himself  took  part. 
His  "  Hellen'ica  "  is  an  attempt  to  cover  that  part  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war  left  unfinished  by  Thucydides.  His  "  Memo- 
rabil'ia"  draws  a  lifelike  portrait  of  his  great  master,  Socrates, 
His  '•  Cyropsedi'a"  professes  to  describe  the  education  of  Cyru^ 
the  Elder,  but  is  quite  as  much  a  description  of  what  the 
author  regards  as  a  just  prince.  His  "  fficonom'icus  "  gives  us 
an  insight  into  the  home  life  of  the  Greeks.  He  wrote  interest- 
ing works  upon  other  subjects,  the  variety  of  which  might 
justify  us  in  calling  him  an  essayist  as  well  as  a  historian. 

The  Athenian  Orators.  — The  making  of  speeches  was  not  a 
new  art  among  the  Athenians,  as  we  have  already  seen  in  con- 
nection with  our  study  of  the  law  courts  and  the  assembly. 
But  it  is  now  that  oratory  becomes  reduced  to  a  written  and 


THE  NEW  PHASE  OF  GREEK  CULTURE 


289 


permanent  form.  Of  the  many  orators  who  attained  distinc- 
tion, we  may  select  three  as  the  most  representative  —  Lys'ias, 
Isoc'rates,  and  Demosthenes  (who 
is  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
general  of  the  same  name).  Lysias 
was  employed,  like  many  others, 
to  write  speeches  for  those  who 
were  obliged  to  plead  their  own 
cause  in  the  courts.  As  he  wrote 
for  plain  men,  he  used  a  plain, 
direct,  and  simple  style.  By  writ- 
ing clearly  and  distinctly,  he  be- 
came a  master  of  vivid  and  effective 
speech.  Somewhat  different  from 
Lysias  was  Isocrates.  He  was 
primarily  a  teacher  of  rhetoric, 
and  hence  the  orations  which  he  Lvsias 

wrote  —  but  did  not  deliver  —  have  more  of  a  rhetorical  finish, 

and  are  perhaps  more  attractive 
in  language  than  effective  in 
thought.  But  the  greatest  of 
all  the  orators  of  Greece  was 
Demosthenes,  who  holds  the 
same  preeminent  place  in  ora- 
tory that  Thucydides  does  in 
history.  His  life  belongs  to 
the  later  part  of-  this  period, 
and  even  reaches  over  into  the 
Macedonian  epoch.  In  the  face 
of  innumerable  obstacles  he  at- 
tained the  greatest  skill  and 
power  in  the  art  of  expression. 
He  combined  the  vivid  effective 
speech  of  Lysias  with  the 
finished  periods  of  Isocrates ;  but  he  possessed,  more  than  either 
of  these,  an  earnestness  of  purpose,  a  force  of  argument,  a 


Isocrates 


290  THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

power  of  persuasion,  and  an  energy  of  diction,  which  have 
given  him  a  place  among  the  world's  greatest  orators.     The 

most  celebrated  of  his  ora- 
tions are  his  twelve  "  Philip- 
pics," in  which  he  appealed 
to  his  countrymen  to  resist 
the  encroachments  of  Philip 
of  Mac'edon. 


II.    Culmination  of  Greek 
Philosophy 

New  Phase  of  Philosophy.  — 

The  high  intellectual  devel- 
opment which  Greece  main- 
tained during  this  time,  is 
seen  not  only  in  history  and 
oratory,  but  also,  and  perhaps  in  a  still  greater  degree,  in  phi- 
losophy. It  was  during  this  period  that  the  philosophical 
thought  of  Greece  reached  its  best  and  highest  expression. 
Before  this  time  philosophers  had  been  trying  to  discover 
how  the  universe  was  made,  and  whether  there  is  any  such 
thing  as  an  ultimate  and  fixed  principle.  Now  they  begin 
to  study  the  human  mind,  the  correct  methods  of  reasoning, 
and  the  proper  mode  of  discovering  truth.  The  great  names 
which  belong  to  this  period  are  those  of  Socrates,  Plato,  and 
Aristotle,  —  three  men  who  rank  among  the  greatest  thinkers 
that  the  world  has  produced. 

The  Practical  Philosophy  of  Socrates.  —  The  name  of  Socrates 
is  connected  with  that  of  the  old  sophists  of  the  Periclean  age. 
Among  them  he  first  appeared  as  the  defender  of  truth,  and 
the  founder  of  a  more  scientific  method  of  thinking.  The  son 
of  a  poor  sculptor,  with  no  personal  attractions,  he  became  one 
of  the  most  conspicuous  figures  in  Athens.  He  turned  the 
thoughts  of  men  into  new  channels.  He  showed  them  how 
foolish  it  was  to  follow  the  method  of  the  old  philosophers,  and 


THE  NEW  PHASE  OF  GREEK  CULTURE 


291 


to  speculate  about  things  which  can  not  be  known.  His  first 
maxim  was,  "  Know  thyself."  He  confounded  the  sophists  who 
prided  themselves  upon  their  extensive  wisdom.  He  taught 
men  that  true  wisdom  consists  in  knowing  that  wliich  is  good 
and  doing  that  which  is  right.  He  taught  them  the  ditlerence* 
between  justice  and  injustice,  between  virtue  and  vice,  between 
courage  and  cowardice.  He  taught  them  their  duties  to  them- 
selves, to  their  fellow-men,  and  to  God.  He  taught  that  God 
is  the  supreme  Good,  who  reveals  Himself  in  the  universe  and 
in  the  human  conscience,  ruling  the  world  by  His  providence, 
and  guiding  men  in  the  path  of 
duty.  His  long  life  extended  be- 
yond the  period  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war.  He  was  finally  tried 
and  condemned  to  death  by  a  small 
majority  of  his  fellow-citizens,  on 
the  charge  of  introducing  new  gods 
into  the  state  and  of  corrupting 
the  youth.  While  we  must  con- 
demn the  Athenians  for  this 
wretched  act  of  injustice,  we  need 
not  wonder  at  it.  Like  many  other 
people  the  mass  of  the  Athenians 
were  blindly  attached  to  their  old 
religious  ideas,  and  shut  their 
eyes  to  the  new  light.  Socrates  represented  the  higher  intel- 
lectual and  moral  life  of  Greece.  He  left  no  writings  ;  but  his 
beneficial  influence  upon  the  world  has  never  ceased. 

The  Idealistic  Philosophy  of  Plato.  —  Socrates  left  behind 
him  many  disciples  who  founded  new  schools.  But  the  most, 
distinguished  of  these  was  Plato,  the  founder  of  the  so-called 
"  Academic  school."  He  carried  out  still  farther  the  method 
of  Socrates.  In  order  to  discover  truth,  he  studied  the  ideas^ 
in  the  human  mind,  which  he  believed  are  reflections  of  the 
ideas  in  the  divine  mind.  He  believed  that  our  ideas  are 
born  with  us,  brought  into  the  world  from  our  preexistent 


Socrates 


292 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


state.  The  divine  ideas  are  embodied,  not  only  in  us,  but  in 
the  world  ;  and  we  should  study  the  universe  to  discover  these 
ideal  principles  in  accordance  with  which  all  things  are  gov- 
erned. So,  in  human  life,  we  should  conform  to  the  ideal  prin- 
'ciples  of  justice  and  virtue  ;  in  other  words,  a  perfect  life  is  a 
life  in  harmony  with  the  divine  Idea.  By  such  a  method  of 
thinking,  Plato  constructed  a  broad  system  of  idealistic  phi- 
losophy. The  writings  of  Plato  are  in  the  form  of  dialogues, 
in  which  Socrates  is  often  represented  as  the  chief  speaker; 

so  that  it  is  sometimes  diffi- 
cult to  distinguish  between  the 
thoughts  of  Socrates  and  those 
of  Plato  himself.  The  dia- 
logues are  often  named  after 
some  person ;  for  example,  the 
"  Protag'oras,"  which  dis- 
cusses the  nature  of  virtue ; 
the  "  Phsedo,"  which  sets  forth 
the  arguments  in  favor  of  im- 
mortality, the  "  Thesete'tus," 
which  is  a  discourse  on  the 
theory  of  knowledge.  One  of 
the  most  celebrated  of  Plato's 
Dialogues  is  ''The  Pepublic," 
which  discusses  the  principles 
which  should  govern  the  perfect  state.  From  the  political 
conflicts  of  the  time  Plato  stood  aloof ;  and  hence  he  shows 
to  us  the  Greek  mind  in  its  purest  and  most  tranquil  frame. 

The  Realistic  Philosophy  of  Aristotle.  —  The  course  of  Greek 
philosophy  was  continued  in  Aristotle,  who,  though  born  in  the 
city  of  Stagi'ra  (or  Stagirus)  in  Chalcidice,  came  to  Athens, 
and  became  a  pupil  of  Plato.  Although  he  regarded  himself 
as  a  follower  of  Plato,  his  method  differed  considerably  from 
that  of  his  master.  If  we  call  Plato's  philosophy  idealistic, 
we  may  call  Aristotle's  realistic.  Instead  of  beginning  with 
ideas,  Aristotle  began  with  facts ;  and  he  tried  to  discover  the 


Plato 


THE  NEW  PHASE  OF  GREEK  CULTURE 


293 


general  laws  which  govern  the  facts  of  nature.  He  was  there- 
fore a  man  of  wide  observation  and  general  learning.  By  gath- 
ering and  classifying  a  vast 
number  of  facts,  he  became 
the  founder  of  many  sciences 
—  of  Logic,  which  treats  of 
the  laws  of  thought ;  of  Psy- 
chology, or  the  science  of  the 
human  mind;  of  Biology,  or 
the  science  of  living  things; 
of  Politics,  or  the  science  of 
the  state.  He  is  said  to  have 
studied  the  constitutions  of 
many  of  the  states  of  Greece; 
and  the  recently  discover'ed 
work  on  the  Athenian  consti- 
tution, which  is  attributed  to 
him,  has  added  much  to  our 


Aristotle  (So-called) 


knowledge  of  that  government.  Aristotle,  like  Demosthenes, 
belongs  to  the  later  part  of  the  period  we  are  now  consider- 
ing, and  his  life  extended  into  the  Macedonian  period. 


III.   Kew  Phase  of  the  Drama;  Comedy 

Origin  of  the  Greek  Comedy —  If  we  see  in  the  history,  the 
oratory,  and  the  philosophy  of  this  period  the  calmer  and  more 
serious  phases  of  the  Grecian  mind,  we  may  see  in  the  new 
form  of  the  drama  its  lighter  and  more  sparkling  qualities. 
We  no  longer  see  that  form  of  the  drama  which  was  produced 
by  the  great  tragedians  just  after  the  Persian  wars.  We  see 
quite  another  form,  which  is  said,  however,  to  have  sprung 
from  the  same  origin  —  namely,  the  worship  of  Dionysus,  the 
wine  god.  While  tragedy  sprang  from  the  graver  choral  songs 
which  accompanied  the  winter  festival,  the  other  phase  of  the 
drama — that  is,  comedy — sprang  from  the  more  frolicsome  songs 
which  attended  the  rural  festivals  in  the  springtime.  To  each 
morey's  greek  hist.  — 18 


294 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


of  tliem  was  added  the  dialogue ;  but  each  retained  its  own 
character  —  the  one  grave  and  the  other  gay.  The  comedy  had 
already  begun  to  be  used  at  the  time  of  Pericles  ;  but  it  reached 
its  higher  development  during  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The 
purpose  of  the  comedy  was  to  excite  laughter  and  ridicule,  and 
hence  it  shows  the  capacity  of  the  Greeks  for  wit  and  humor. 


Masks  used  in  Comedy 


The  Old,  Middle,  and  New  Comedy.  —  It  is  usual  to  separate 
the  Athenian  comedy  into  the  old,  the  middle,  and  the  new, 
according  to  the  object  toward  which  its  satire  was  directed. 
The  old  comedy,  of  which  Aristoph'anes  was  the  great  repre- 
sentative, flourished  just  after  the  age  of  Pericles.  It  was  di- 
rected against  individuals,  the  public  and  private  citizens  of 
Athens,  who  were  by  name  held  up  to  ridicule  before  the 
laughing  populace.  It  served  the  purpose  of  the  modern  comic 
paper  in  subjecting  to  bold  and  ludicrous  caricature  well-known 
persons,  with  little  care  sometimes  for  the  justice  of  the 
picture.  The  middle  comedy,  which  extended  from  the  close 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war  to  the  Macedonian  epoch,  was  less 
personal  in  its  attacks,  and  was  directed  not  so  much  toward 
persons  as  toward  types  of  people.  The  new  comedy,  which 
grew  up  in  the  following  period,  was  hardly  more  than  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  preceding  form,  with  perhaps  more  refined 
methods,  being  a  comedy  of  manners. 

The  Comedies  of  Aristophanes.  —  The  greatest  of  all  the  comic 
writers  of  the  Greeks  was  Aristophanes,  who  belonged  to  the 
old  school.  He  mingled  in  the  political  life  of  Athens,  and 
belonged  to  the  party  which  was  "against  the  government." 
He  was  also  opposed  to  the  new  order  of  things,  the  new 


THE  NEW  PHASE  OF  GREEK  CULTURE 


295 


culture,  the  new  philosophy,  and  longed  for  the  good  old  days 
of  Miltiades  and  Pericles.  His  comedies  might  give  us  the 
best  picture  we  have  of  Athenian  life,  if  they  contained  less  of 
caricature  and  satire.  From  other  sources  we  may  learn  that 
some  of  his  pictures  are  fairly  just,  while  others  are  marked 
by  the  grossest  injustice.  Among  his  most  noted  works  are 
the  "  Clouds,"  the  "  Knights,"  the  '•  Wasps,"  and  the  "  Birds." 
The  "  Clouds  "  indicated  the  method  of  the  sophists,  and  un- 
justly held  up  Socrates  as  the  type  of  this  whole  class.  The 
'^  Knights "  attacked  with  brilliant  satire  that  coarse  dema- 
gogue Cleon,  who,  though  not  an  admirable  character,  perhaps 
does  not  merit  all  the  abuse  he  received.  The  "  Wasps  "  is  an 
amusing  picture  of  the  Athenian  jury  system,  in  which  every 
man  is  represented  as  trying  to  get  a  day's  pay  without  a  day's 
work.  The  "  Birds  "  is  "  a  fantastic  satire  upon  the  Athenian 
habit  of  building  castles  in  the  air,  and  of  indulging  in  extrava- 
gant dreams  of  conquest "  (Symonds).  With  all  his  ribaldry, 
Aristophanes  was  a  poet  of  real  genius,  of  sparkling  wit,  of 
great  versatility,  and  sometimes  of  exquisite  beauty. 


IV.   Kew  School  of  Greek  Art 

The  Younger  Attic  School.  —  Another 
illustration  of  the  fact  that  the  political 
conflicts  of  this  period  did  not  destroy 
the  culture  of  Greece  is  shown  in  the 
continuance  of  art.  Architecture  fol- 
lowed the  forms  already  existing,  al- 
though we  can  see  a  tendency  to  use 
the  more  graceful  Ionic  style,  in  place 
of  the  more  dignified  and  severe  Doric. 
A  similar  tendency  is  seen  in  the  char- 
acter of  sculpture.  We  see  less  of  the 
grand  and  divine  dignity  of  the  work  of 
Phidias.  But  we  see  more  grace  and 
human  beauty  —  less  of  that  which  is 


Ares  Ludovisi 


296 


THE   ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 


impressive,  and  perhaps  more  of  that  which  is  attractive. 
We  see  a  marvelous  skill  in  the  pose  of  the  human  figure,  and 
a  wonderful  expression  in  the  human  face.  Notwithstanding 
the  changes  which  modified  the  artistic  spirit,  the  sculpture  of 
this  period  will  compare  favorably  with  that  of  the  Periclean 
age.  The  greatest  names  which  belong  to  this  school  are  those 
of  Scopas,  Praxit'eles,  and  Lysip'pus. 

Scopas  of  Paros.  —  Although  a  native  of  the  island  of  Paros, 
it  is  conjectured  that   Scopas   lived  in  Athens  a  number  of 

years.  However  this  may 
be,  his  work  was  not  con- 
fined to  Athens.  He  was 
the  architect  of  a  temple 
built  to  Athena  at  Tegea, 
in  Arcadia,  and  he  cai-ved 
the  statuary  in  the  pedi- 
ments of  this  temple.  He 
was  also  engaged  in  Caria 
in  executing  the  reliefs  on 
the  renowned  Mausole'um, 
or  funeral  monument  of 
Mauso'lus.  Besides  these 
sculptures,  there  are  also 
two  famous  pieces  of  statu- 
ary which  some,  perhaps 
without  sufficient  reason, 
have  attributed  to  him. 
Whether  they  belong  to 
him  or  not,  they  are  gen- 
erally supposed  to  repre- 
sent the  art  of  this  period.  The  one  is  the  Ares  Ludovisi,  which 
shows  the  god  of  war  in  an  attitude  of  idle  repose.  The  easy 
relaxed  position  of  this  powerful  figure  impresses  one  as  a 
master  stroke  of  the  sculptor's  art.  The  other  is  the  group  of 
Ni'obe  and  her  children,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  work  of 
either  Scopas  or  Praxiteles.     It  represents  the  mother  in  an 


NiOBE 


THE  NEW  THASE  OF  GREEK  CULTURE 


297 


attitude  of  supplication,  imploring  the  gods  to  spare  the  ven- 
geance which  they  have  pronounced  upon  her  and  her  children. 
The  face  of  Niobe  is  unequaled  in  art  as  the  expression  of 
prayerful  grief. 

Praxiteles  of  Athens.  —  The  name  of  Praxiteles  stands  next 
to  that  of  Phidias  in  Greek  art.  He  was  a  native  of  Athens, 
but  we  know  very  little  of  his 
life.  One  of  the  most  famous  of 
his  works  was  the  Aphrodite  of 
Cnidus,  which  was  visited  from  all 
parts  of  Greece  by  his  admirers. 
But  critics  have  been  disposed  to 
give  the  place  of  honor  to  his 
Hermes  with  the  infant  Dionysus, 
which  in  a  mutilated  form  has 
come  down  to  us.  He  executed  a 
large  number  of  figures  of  gods, 
goddesses,  etc.,  which  were  charac- 
terized by  their  grace,  symmetry, 
and  beauty. 

Lysippus  of  Sicyon. — The  last 
great  name  which  may  be  asso- 
ciated with  this  school  is  that  of 
Lysippus  of  Sicyon,  whose  life, 
however,  reached  into  the  next 
period.  His  works  appear  to  have  been  entirely  in  bronze. 
He  was  especially  noted  for  his  selection  of  human  subjects. 
One  of  his  most  famous  pieces  is  the  figure  of  an  Athlete. 
He  was  also  distinguished  for  his  portrait  statues,  one  of 
which — that  of  Sophocles  (see  page  246)  —  is  regarded  as 
the  finest  ancient  work  of  its  kind. 

New  School  of  Painting.  —  During  this  period  there  was  a 
marked  advance  in  the  method  of  painting.  Previously  colors 
had  been  applied  in  fiat  tints  with  no  gradations  of  light  and 
shade ;  and  hence  the  so-called  paintings  were  more  prop- 
erly colored  drawings.     But  colors  were  now  graded  so  as  to 


Hermes  of  Praxiteles 


298  *  THE  ATHENIAN  ASCENDENCY 

produce  the  effect  of  light  and  shade,  which  we  call  chiaro- 
scuro.  This  method  was  introduced  by  Apollodo'rus  of  Athens. 
But  it  was  improved  by  the  two  great  painters,  Zeuxis  and  Par- 
rha'sius.  The  realistic  effect  of  the  new  style  of  painting  is 
illustrated  by  the  story  often  told  of  these  rival  artists,  —  how 
the  former  painted  a  bunch  of  grapes  that  deceived  the  birds, 
and  the  latter  a  curtain  that  deceived  the  rival  painter  himself. 
In  this  brief  review  of  the  culture  which  followed  the  age 
of  Pericles  and  which  flourished  during  this  most  distressing 
period  in  the  political  life  of  Greece,  we  are  able  to  see  more 
clearly  than  ever  before  the  sterling  qualities  of  the  Greek  mind 
—  qualities  which  continued  to  shine  in  the  midst  of  political 
storms.  Every  phase  of  culture,  with  the  exception  of  poetry, 
remains ;  and  in  some  respects  there  is  a  new  revelation  of 
intellectual  life.  What  other  age  can  show  such  a  versatility 
of  genius  —  Thucydides  in  history,  Demosthenes  in  oratory, 
Plato  in  philosophy,  Aristophanes  in  comedy,  and  Praxiteles 
in  art ! 

SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 
Mahaffy,  Survey,  Chs.  6,  7,  "The  Fourth  Century  b.c."  (10). i 
Hohn,  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  26,  "  The  New  Culture  "  ;  Vol.  III.,  Ch.  12,  "  Litera- 
ture and  Art  in  the  First  Half  of  the  Fourth  Century  "  (11). 
Allcroft,  Vol.  III.,  Ch.  12,  "Literature";  Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  11,  "Litera- 
ture "  (10). 
Zeller,  Second  Period,  "Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle"  (24). 
Mayor,  pp.  27-143,  "  Socrates  to  Aristotle"  (24). 
Jevons,  pp.  404-435,  "Demosthenes"  (23). 
Symonds,  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  8,  "Aristophanes"  (23). 

Tarbell,  Ch.  9,  "  Great  Age  of  Greek  Sculpture,  Second  Period  "  (10). 
Gardner,  Handbook,  Ch.  4,  "  The  Fourth  Century  "  (19). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 
Greek  Rhetoric  and  Oratory.  —  Fowler,  Chs.  29-32  (23)  ;  Mahaffy, 
Greek  Literature,  Vol.  II.,  Chs.  11,  12  (23)  ;  Brddif,  Demosthenes,  Chs. 
1,  7,  9  (27)  ;  Jebb,  Greek  Literature,  Bk.  II.  (23)  ;  Jebb,  Attic  Orators, 
Vol.  I.,  Chs.  7-11  ;  Vol.  IL,  Chs.  12-18,  22  (23). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


THE   SPEEAD    OF   HELLENISM 


>J*Jt 


PEEIOD   VI.     TH&  UNION   OF   GEEEOE   AND   THE   OKIENT 
(359-229  B.C.) 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

MACEDONIA  AND   GREECE  UNDER  PHILIP 

I.   Macedonia,  its  People  and  Kixg 

Transition  to  the  New  Epoch.  —  From  our  study  of  Greek 
history  up  to  this  time,  we  have  been  able  to  see  that  the 
greatest  achievements  of  the  Greeks  were  not  in  the  direction 
of  political  organization,  but  rather  in  the  direction  of  a  high 
intellectual  life.  We  have  had  our  attention  continually 
called  to  the  varied  and  remarkable  evidences  of  their  genius 
—  in  epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic  poetry ;  in  history,  oratory,  and 
philosophy ;  in  architecture,  sculpture,  and  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent in  painting.  It  is  true  that  Greece  had  derived  some 
of  the  primitive  elements  of  her  culture  from  the  great  coun- 
tries of  the  East.  But  in  the  course  of  time  she  had  developed 
within  her  own  small  territory  a  type  of  civilization  which 
far  surpassed  that  which  the  East  had  ever  possessed.  We 
have  now  reached  the  period  in  which  the  superior  culture  of 
Greece  is  no  longer  to  be  confined  within  the  narrow  limits 
of  Hellas,  but  is  to  be  extended  and  diffused  among  the  people 

299 


300 


THE    SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


of  the  East.  If  in  early  times  the  tide  of  Orientalism  once 
flowed  toward  the  ^gean,  now  the  tide  of  Hellenism  is  to 
flow  back  toward  the  Orient.  The  great  feature  of  the  coming 
epoch  is  the  union  of  Greece  and  Asia  in  a  wider  civilization, 
wliich  we  may  call  "Graeco-Oriental."  The  country  which  is 
to  form  the  bond  of  union  between  the  West  and  the  East 
is  Macedonia.  The  two  great  men  who  are  to  be  most  influen- 
tial in  bringing  about  this  union  are  Philip  and  Alexander 
the  Great  —  the  one  bringing  under  his  control  Greece;  the 
other,  Asia. 

Macedonia  and  the  Macedonians.  —  Macedonia   now   comes  to 
occupy  for  the  flrst  time  an  important  place  in  history.     It 

was  a  country  lying 
to  the  north  of  Thes- 
saly,  beyond  the  Cam- 
bunian  IVIountains. 
Geographically  it 
may  be  divided  into 
two  parts :  the  high- 
lands, lying  toward 
the  north  and  west 
and  broken  up  by 
hills  and  mountains ; 
and  the  lowlands, 
lying  toward  the  sea 
and  drained  by  three  rivers  which  flow  into  the  Thermaic 
Gulf.  The  people  were  remotely  related  to  the  Greeks.  But 
they  were  still  in  a  semi-barbarous  condition,  living  by  hunting 
wild  beasts  and  plundering  one  another.  They  were  a  hardy 
race,  and  had  in  them  the  making  of  good  soldiers.  In  the 
highlands  they  were  separated  into  many  tribes,  each  under  its 
own  chief.  l>ut  in  the  lowlands,  near  the  sea,  they  had  come 
into  contact  with  the  Greek  colonies,  and  had  begun  to  be 
more  civilized  and  to  have  something  like  a  united  government. 
Early  Kings  of  Macedonia.  — We  have  little  to  do  with  the 
earlier   kings    of   this   country,   except   so  far  as  they   were 


Macedonia  at  the  Accession  of  Philip  H. 


MACEDONIA   AND   GREECE    UNDER   PHILIP  301 

brought  into  relation  with  the  Greeks.  We  hear  of  Alexan- 
der I.  who  served  in  the  army  of  Xerxes,  but  who  afterward 
took  part  in  the  Greek  festivals,  and  was  considered  as  a  real 
Greek.  We  also  hear  of  Archela'us,  a  more  noted  king,  who 
came  into  closer  relation  with  the  Greeks  ;  who  ruled  with 
skill  and  energy,  enlarging  his  kingdom  ;  and  who  adopted 
some  of  the  customs  of  the  Greek  people,  even  inviting  to  his 
court  Greek  poets  and  artists.  At  the  time  of  the  Theban 
supremacy,  Macedonia  became  so  strong  and  threatening  that 
Pelopidas  invaded  the  country,  checked  the  ambition  of  its 
ruler,  and  brought  back  to  Thebes  the  young  prince  Philip  as 
a  hostage.  This  young  Philip,  while  in  bondage,  became 
versed  in  the  civilized  arts  of  Greece  and  especially  in  the 
military  system  of  Epaminondas,  and  thus  became  fitted  for 
his  future  work  as  the  king  of  Macedonia. 

Accession  of  Philip  II.  (359  b.c).  —  On  his  return  to  Macedonia 
Philip  was  appointed  regent  of  the  kingdom  at  the  age  of 
twenty -three  ;  and  in  a 
short  time  he  had.  him- 
self proclaimed  king.  He 
proved  to  be  a  man  of 
wonderful  ability,  versed 
in  the  best  as  well  as  the 
worst  arts  of  statecraft. 
He     possessed     unusual  hilip     .  (  om) 

powers  of  organization.  He  was  able  as  a  warrior,  and  still 
more  able  as  a  wily  diplomatist.  He  soon  crushed  all  his 
rivals,  and  seated  himself  firmly  upon  the  throne.  He  then 
extended  his  power  over  the  mountain  tribes,  and  pushed 
back  the  barbarians  on  the  frontiers  —  the  Illyrians  on  the 
west  and  the  Paeo'nians  on  the  north.  But  more  than  this,  he 
gathered  together  his  scattered  subjects  into  a  well-organized 
army.  This  gave  to  the  people  a  common  military  .discipline  and 
a  common  national  spirit.  In  organizing  his  army,  Philip 
adopted  the  Greek  phalanx ;  but  he  strengthened  it  by  making 
the  line  sixteen  instead  of  eight  men  deep.     He  armed  the  men 


302  THE   SPREAD  OF   HELLENISM 

with  lances  twenty-one  feet  long,  so  that  the  front  of  the  phalanx 
presented  a  projecting  forest  of  bristling  spears.  He  also 
organized  a  fine  body  of  heavy-armed  cavalry,  made  up  of  the 
best  men  of  the  kingdom  and  called  "companions,"  which 
formed  in  action  the  right  arm  of  his  battle  line. 

Extension  of  the  Macedonian  Kingdom Philip  directed  his 

energies  to  extending  his  kingdom  along  the  coast.  By  deceiv- 
ing the  Athenians  he  got  possession  of  Amphipolis  and  Pydna. 
He  then  captured  Potidsea,  a  Corinthian  colony  in  Chalcidice 
which  had  been  brought  under  tlie  power  of  Athens.  But 
instead  of  keeping  this  city  himself,  he  turned  it  over  to 
Olynthus,  the  capital  of  the  Ohalcidian  confederacy;  he  did 
this  to  make  Athens  jealous  of  Olynthus,  and  thus  to  keep 
these  two  cities'  from  uniting  against  him.  He  soon  pushed 
into  Thrace  and  founded  a  city  called  after  his  own  name 
Philip'pi.  This  gave  him  control  of  the  Thracian  mines,  which 
yielded  him  an  annual  revenue  of  a  thousand  talents  (nearly 
$1,200,000).  Thus  in  a  few  years  Philip  had  converted  a 
semi-barbarous  country  into  a  well-organized  and  growing 
kingrdom. 


II.   Encroachments  of  Philip  upon  Greece 

Athens  and  the  "Social  War"  (358-355  b.c.).  — The  aggres- 
sions of  Philip  on  the  northern  coasts  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  were 
made  upon  territory  which  Athens  either  owned  or  coveted. 
Since  the  foundation  of  her  second  confederacy  (see  page  281), 
Athens  had  recovered  much  of  her  old  power  and  influence  ; 
and  she  was  now  disposed  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  the 
Macedonian  king.  But  she  was  prevented  at  this  time  from 
making  any  serious  opposition  to  him,  as  she  was  engaged  in 
putting  down  a  revolt  of  her  own  allies  —  Chios,  Cos,  Rhodes, 
and  Byzantium  (map,  page  262).  This  revolt  was  incited  and 
aided  by  the  satraps  of  Asia  Minor,  and  also  by  Mausolus,  the 
governor  of  Caria.  After  a  weary  war  —  known  as  the  "  Social 
war "  —  the   independence   of  the   allies   was   acknowledged. 


MACEDONIA  AND   GREECE    UNDER    PHILIP  303 

As  a  result  of  this  war,  Athens  again  lost  her  influence  on 
the  Asiatic  coast,  at  the  same  time  that  she  was  losing  her 
hold  on  the  northern  shores  of  the  ^gean. 

Philip  and  the  "Sacred  War"  (357-346  b.c). —Philip  was 
aided  in  his  aggressions,  not  only  by  the  revolt  of  the  Athenian 
allies  just  mentioned,  but  also  by  a  more  serious  quarrel  which 
broke  out  in  central  Greece.  This  was  a  bitter  feud  between 
Phocis  and  Thebes  regarding  the  oracle  at  Delphi  (map,  page  76) , 
and  is  known  as  the  "  Sacred  war."  The  Thebans  brought 
against  the  Phocians  the  charge  of  sacrilege,  claiming  that  the 
Phocians  had  seized  lands  belonging  to  the  temple  of  Apollo. 
The  Phocians  were  condemned  by  the  Amphictyonic  Council,  and 
were  heavily  fined.  They  refused,  however,  to  pay  this  fine, 
and  added  to  their  first  crime  another,  by  seizing  the  temple 
itself  with  its  treasures.  A  long  war  followed  between  Phocis 
and  Thebes  —  the  latter  being  assisted  by  Thessaly  and  Locris. 
The  Phocians  were  victorious  in  battle  and  pushed  their 
armies  into  Thessaly.  Thebes,  therefore,  appealed  to  Philip 
for  aid ;  and  the  Macedonian  king  entered  Greece  as  the  ally 
of  Thebes  and  the  champion  of  Apollo.  He  defeated  the 
Phocians  and  made  himself  master  of  Thessaly.  Pressing  on 
to  Thermopylae,  he  found  this  pass  held  by  an  Athenian  army. 
Instead  of  exposing  his  own  army  to  slaughter,  he  deemed  it 
wiser  to  withdraw  and  to  wait  for  a  more  convenient  season 
in  which  to  extend  his  influence  in  Greece. 

Demosthenes  and  Philip.  —  The  one  great  man  who  now  ap- 
peared as  the  defender  of  Greece  against  Philip  was  Demos- 
thenes. He  had  already  made  a  reputation  as  an  orator ;  and 
he  now  assumed  the  role  of  a  statesman.  Inspired  with  a 
patriotic  spirit  as  pure  as  that  of  Pericles,  he  labored  under 
the  delusion  that  Athens  might  again  be  great  and  might  stem 
the  advancing  power  of  Macedonia.  Demosthenes  was  opposed 
by  the  peace  party  of  Athens.  This  party  had  for  its  leader 
Eubu'lus,  for  its  popular  representative  Pho'cion,  and  for  its 
chief  orator  ^s 'chines.  These  men  believed  that  it  would  be 
for  the  best  interests  of  Athens  to  come  to  terms  with  Philip. 


304  THE   SPREAD    OF   HELLENISM 

But  Demosthenes  determined  to  resist  every  advancing  step 
made  by  the  Macedonian  king.  To  arouse  Greece  to  a  sense 
of  her  danger,  he  delivered  the  first  of  a  series  of  famous 
orations  known  as  "  Philippics." 

Philip  was  now  busy  in  the  north,  trying  to  get  possession 
of  Olynthus,  and  to  reduce  to  his  power  the  whole  Chalcidian 
confederacy.  Olynthus  appealed  to  Athens  for  aid;  and 
Demosthenes  delivered  his  ''  Olynthiac  orations,"  to  urge  the 
people  to  make  war  upon  Philip  and  to  save  the  Chalcidian 
city.  His  earnest  efforts  induced  the  Athenians  to  declare 
war,  but  failed  to  save  the  beleaguered  town.  Olynthus  fell 
(348  B.C.),  and  with  it  all  the  Chalcidian  cities,  whose  inhabit- 
ants, according  to  the  ancieilt  custom,  were  either  put  to  death 
or  sold  into  slavery.  The  kingdom  of  Philip  now  extended 
nearly  to  the  Hellespont  on  the  east,  and  to  the  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae on  the  south. 

III.    The  Pacification  of  Greece 

The  Peace  of  Philocrates  (346  b.c).  — The  ambition  of  Philip 
was  now  directed  to  getting  control  of  the  whole  Hellenic  penin- 
sula. But  to  obtain  any  further  influence  in  Greece,  it  was 
necessary  to  get  possession  of  Thermopylae,  where  a  short  time 
before  he  had  been  stopped  by  the  Athenian  army.  This  pass, 
he  was  convinced,  could  be  taken  more  easily  by  diplomacy  than 
by  force.  He  accordingly  surprised  and  pleased  the  Athe- 
nians by  showing  a  desire  to  make  peace.  On  motion  of  Philoc'- 
rates,  an  Athenian  embassy  was  appointed  to  negotiate  a  treaty 
with  the  king.  The  embassy  included  in  its  number  the  rival 
orators,  ^Eschines  and  Demosthenes.  After  some  dallying  and 
annoying  delay,  the  "Peace  of  Philocrates"  was  concluded.^ 
By  its  terms  each  party  was  to  retain  its  present  possession^ 
but  Philip  claimed  the  privilege  of  punishing  the  sacrilegious 
Phocians,  which  privilege  was  granted  to  him.  In  order  to 
inflict  upon  this  wicked  people  the  punishment  authorized  by 
the  treaty,  Philip  was  allowed  to  lead  his  army  through  the 


MACEDONIA  AND   GREECE  UNDER   PHILIP  305 

pass  of  Thermopylae.  He  thus  obtained  the  key  of  Greece  for 
the  possession  of  which  he  had  been  intriguing ;  and  to  insure 
its  permanent  occupation,  he  placed  in  it  a  Macedonian  garri- 
son. He  then  marched  to  Delphi ;  but  instead  of  wreaking  his 
vengeance  upon  the  Phocians,  as  had  been  expected,  he  simply 
scattered  them  in  small  villages,  and  received  himself  the 
two  votes  in  the  Amphictyonic  Council  hitherto  possessed  by 
Phocis.  Turning  now  to  the  Peloponnesus,  Philip  formed 
alliances  with  Argos,  Messenia,  and  Elis ;  and  his  emissaries 
were  stationed  in  nearly  every  city.  As  the  indirect  result 
of  the  Peace  of  Philocrates,  Macedonia  thus  became  the  lead- 
ing state  in  Greece. 

The  Battle  of  Chaeronea  (338  b.c).  —  But  Athens  was  not 
ready,  even  now,  to  accept  the  supremacy  of  the  Macedonian 
king.  It  is  true  that  Demosthenes  had  urged  the  peo'ple  to 
accept  the  Peace  of  Philocrates ;  but  he  was  afterward  led  to 
question  the  honesty  of  Philip  in  his  dealings  with  Greece. 
He  also  saw  that  Philip  was  about  to  make  further  aggressions 
in  Thrace.  It  was  through  the  influence  of  Demosthenes  that 
Philip  was  prevented  from  getting  possession  of  Byzantium 
on  the  Bosphorus.  It  was  also  through  his  influence  that 
Athens  and  Thebes  joined  in  a  final  effort  to  crush  the  king, 
when  he  was  once  more  called  into  Greece  to  protect  the  oracle 
at  Delphi.  But  at  Chaeronea,  in  Boeotia  (map,  page  281),  Philip 
defeated  the  combined  forces  of  the  Grecian  allies,  and  de- 
stroyed the  last  opposition  to  his  power.  This  battle  is  gener- 
ally regarded  as  marking  the  loss  of  Grecian  independence. 
But  we  can  see  that  the  independence  of  Greece  had  been 
gradually  declining  since  the  first  interference  of  Philip  in 
Grecian  affairs.  Greece  fell  before  Macedonia  on  account  of 
her  incapacity  to  form  a  united  state,  like  that  which  Philip 
had  created  for  his  people. 

The  Congress  of  Corinth  (338  b.c).  —  Philip  now  proceeded 
to  do  for  Greece  what  Greece  had  failed  to  do  for  herself.  He 
called  together  at  Corinth  a  congress  of  all  the  states.  This 
congress  is  said  to  have  been  the  most  representative  body  that 


306  THE   vSPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

the  Hellenic  world  had  ever  seen  —  Sparta  alone  standing  aloof. 
The  king  gave  to  the  Greeks  a  constitution  which  formed  a  kind 
of  federal  state.  Every  city  was  to  be  free,  and  to  manage  its 
own  affairs,  and  not  to  be  subject  to  any  tribute.  The  Ampliicty- 
onic  Council  was  to  be  the  supreme  arbiter  in  the  settlement  of 
disputes  between  the  ditf erent  states.  The  king  was  to  be  the 
president,  having  the  power  to  declare  war  and  peace.  At  this 
congress  Philip  revealed  his  greatest  project,  which  was  noth- 
ing less  than  the  conquest  of  Persia,  in  which  Greeks  and  Mace- 
donians would  unite  in  avenging  the  wrongs  done  to  Greece 
since  the  days  of  Xerxes.  The  proposals  of  the  king  were 
accepted,  and  he  was  appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the 
armies  which  were  to  invade  the  Persian  empire.  But  while 
making  plans  for  this  expedition,  Philip  was  assassinated,  and 
the  completion  of  his  work  was  left  to  his  son,  Alexander  the 
Great. 

SELECTIONS   FOR   READING 

Curteis,  Ch.  3,  "Macedonia  and  Hellas  at  Philip's  Accession"  (17). 

Smith,  Ch.  42,  "Accession  of  Philip  "  (10). 

Bury,  Ch.  10,  "Rise  of  Macedonia"  (10). 

Timayenis,  Vol.    II.,    Part  III.,  Ch.  2,   "The   Phocian  and   Olyuthiac 

Wars"  (11). 
Holm,  Vol.  IIL,  Ch.  16,  "The  Sacred  War"  (11). 
Oman,  Ch.  42,  "Philip  and  Demosthenes"  (10). 
Allcroft,  Vol.  v.,  Ch.  6,  "  Peace  of  Philocrates"  (10). 
Curtius,  Vol.  v.,  Bk.  VII.,  Ch.  3,  "Athens  and  King  Philip"  (11). 
Plutarch,  "Demosthenes,"  "Phocion"  (13). 


SPECIAL    STUDY 

The  Macedonian  Army.  —Bury,  pp.  819,  820  (10)  ;  Allcroft,  Vol.  V., 
pp.  115,  116  (10)  ;  Curteis,  pp.  34-38  (17)  ;  Wheeler,  Alexander,  pp.  215- 
217  (27)  ;  Dodge,  Alexander,  Ch.  12  (27);  Grote,  Part  II.,  ch.  92. 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


CHAPTER   XXV 


ALEXANDER   AND   THE   CONQUEST  OF   THE  EAST 
I.    Conquests  in  Western  Asia 


Accession  of  Alexander  (336  e.g.).  —  By  the  work  of  Philip  the 
barriers  which  separated  Greece  from  Macedonia  were  broken 
down ;  but  the  barriers  which  separated  Europe  from  Asia  still 
remained.  To  level  these  was  the  work  of  Alexander.  In  this 
young  prince  we  see  a  remark- 
able combination  of  qualities. 
From  his  father  he  inherited  an 
imperial  will,  a  keen  insight  in- 
to men  and  things,  and  a  genius 
for  military  organization.  From 
his  mother  —  a  half-barbarian 
princess  —  he  inherited  an  im- 
petuous nature,  a  fitful,  fiery 
temper,  and  a  tendency  to  super- 
stition. By  his  great  teacher, 
Aristotle,  he  was  trained  to  vir- 
tue and  the  love  of  truth,  to  an 
exalted  appreciation  of  knowl- 
edge, and  to  a  sympathy  with 
the  Hellenic  spirit.  From  his  favorite  author.  Homer,  he  de- 
rived a  heroic  inspiration,  a  zeal  for  warlike  action,  and  a 
passion  to  rival  the  deeds  of  Achilles.  From  the  time  that  he 
was  a  boy  of  twelve  —  when,  according  to  Plutarch,  he  had 
tamed  the  fiery  steed  Buceph'alus  —  to  the  battle  of  Chaeronea, 
where  he  had  led  the  Macedonian  cavalry,  he  had  shown  that 
he  was  born  to  rule.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  ascended  his 
father's  throne.    His  first  work  was  to  quell  the  spirit  of  revolt 

307 


Alexander 


FROORESSIVE    M:^r>   T>C-o 


ALEXANDER  AND   THE   CONQUEST  OF   THE   EAST      309 

which  seemed  everywhere  to  show  itself  with  the  news  of  his 
father's  death.  He  put  out  of  the  way  his  possible  rivals.  He 
entered  Greece  and  had  himself  proclaimed  commander  in  chief, 
as  his  father  had  done.  He  punished  the  tribes  of  the  north 
and  west  which  threatened  the  frontiers  of  his  kingdom. 
Angered  by  a  Grecian  revolt  led  by  Thebes,  he  wiped  that  city 
fix)m  the  earth,  sparing  only  the  temples  and  the  house  of  the 
poet  Pindar.  Having  pacified  his  kingdom  in  Europe,  he  was 
ready  to  enter  upon  the  conquest  of  Asia. 

Asia  Minor ;  Battle  of  the  Granicus  (334  b.c).  —  The  expedi- 
tions of  Alexander  are  so  filled  with  incidents  that  we  can  do 
scarcely  more  than  simply  to  trace  on  the  map  his  route  through 
the  Eastern  countries,  and  point 
out  the  sites  of  his  most  important 
battles.  He  crossed  the  Helles- 
pont with  a  small  but  well-trained 
army  consisting  of  thirty  thousand 
infantry  and  five  thousand  cav- 
alry. He  first  visited  the  plains 
of  Troy,  already  hallowed  in  his  Battle  of  Granicus 

imacrinntinn  bv  f-lip  tnlpQ  nf  TTn  «,  Macedonian  phalanx  ;&,  allied  cav- 
imaginatlOn    Oy    tne    tales     or     no-  airy  ;c,  companion  cavalry  ;</,  light 

mer  ;    here  he  offered  a  sacrifice  to  infantry  ;    e,  archers    and  javelin 

Athena,  and  paid  homage  to  the 

tomb  of  Achilles.  His  first  battle  was  fought  at  the  river 
Grani'cus,  a  small  stream  flowing  into  the  Propontis.  At  this 
point  the  Persian  satraps  of  Asia  Minor  had  collected  an  army 
of  forty  thousand  men,  made  up  largely  of  Greek  mercenaries, 
with  which  they  hoped  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  young  Mace- 
donian. Alexander  crossed  the  river  in  the  face  of  the  Per- 
sian cavalry,  and  practically  destroyed  the  whole  army,  with 
but  a  small  loss  on  his  own  part.^     The  victory  at  the  Granicus 

1  In  this  victory  we  may  learn  something  of  the  way  in  which  Alexander 
conducted  a  battle.  His  general  plan  was  as  follows :  (1)  To  hold  in  reserve 
his  left  wing,  —  consisting  of  (a)  the  Macedonian  phalanx,  supported  on  the 
left  by  (b)  the  allied  cavalry  —  in  order  to  resist  any  attack  of  the  enemy; 
(2)  to  charge  furiously  with  his  right  wing  —  consisting  of  (c)  the  "  companion 
cavalry  "  connecting  with  the  phalanx  by  (d)  the  light  infantry,  and  supported 


GREEK  MERCENARIES                           || 

II 

-.-<:::r;n^Trr^-^<^vv^' 

Biver 

— •^anicus         N^^^b     ^ 

PARMENIO                   vV^ 
2-H MACEDONIANS 

310 


THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 


left  very  little  opposition  in  Asia  Minor.  Phrygia  fell  im- 
mediately into  his  hands.  Sardis  surrendered  without  a  blow. 
Ephesus  was  frightened  into  submission.  Miletus  resisted  and 
was  taken  by  storm.  The  cities  of  Lycia  hastened  to  open 
their  gates.  This  closed  the  first  campaign;  and  Alexander 
moved  north  to  Gordium,  the  capital  of  Phrygia,  where  he 
quartered  his  army  for  the  winter,  and  according  to  the  well- 
known  story  "cut  the.Gordian  knot." 

Syria;  Battle  of  Issus  (333  b.c).  —  In  the  spring  Alexander 
marched  southward  through  the  passes  of  the  Taurus  Mountains 
to  Tarsus ;  then  through  the  city  of  Issus  into  the  open  plains 

of  Syria,  where  he  expected  to 
meet  the  armies  of  the  great  king, 
Darius  III.  In  the  meantime,  Da- 
rius had  assembled  a  vast  horde 
of  six  hundred  thousand  men  and 
moved  to  the  north  and  to  the  rear 
of  Alexander's  army,  hoping  to  cut 
off  its  retreat.  He  took  up  a  posi- 
tion south  of  Issus  on  the  banks 
of  the  little  river  Pin'arus.  But, 
crowded  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea,  a  large  portion  t>f 
the  Persian  army  could  not  be  brought  to  the  battle  line.  Alex- 
ander, who  had  moved  far  to  the  south  of  this  position,  was 
obliged  to  face  about,  march  back  toward  the  north,  and  attack 
Darius  in  his  chosen  position.  After  a  severe  conflict,  a  large 
part  of  the  Persian  army  was  destroyed  and  the  rest  put  to 
flight.     Syria  was  thus  brought  under  Alexander's  power. 

Instead  now  of  pushing  directly  into  the  heart  of  Persia,  as 
the  "  Ten  Thousand  "  had  done  under  Cyrus  the  Younger,  Alex- 
ander decided  first  to  secure  the  Mediterranean  coasts  to  the 


MACEDONIANS 


Battle  of  Issus 
(For  letters,  see  page  30( 


on  the  extreme  right  by  (e)  the  archers  and  javelin  throwers  — the  cavalry- 
charge  being  intended  to  pierce  and  break  the  enemy's  lines;  and  (3)  to  bring 
up  the  reserved  left  wing  and  complete  the  victory.  No  general  has  ever 
surpassed  Alexander  in  the  use  of  cavalry.  In  all  his  great  battles  Alexander 
commanded  the  attacking  right  wing,  and  his  most  trusted  general,  Parme'nio, 
commanded  the  reserved  left  wing.     (See  Dodge,  pp.  237-244,  .'305-310,  ;368-386.) 


ALEXANDER  AND  THE  CONQUEST  OF  THE  EAST   311 


south.  He  therefore  moved  through  Sidon  and  reached  Tyre. 
At  this  place  he  met  the  most  serious  resistance  which  'he  en- 
countered in  all  his  campaigns.  The 
new  city  of  Tyre  was  situated  on  an 
island  about  half  a  mile  from  the  coast. 
Having  no  fleet  at  hand,  Alexander 
could  reach  the  city  only  by  building 
an  immense  mole,  or  causeway,  through 
the  sea  to  the  walls.  By  this  stupen- 
dous piece  of  work  he  was  able  to  storm 
and  capture  the  city.  The  overtures 
for  peace  which  the  Persian  king  now 
felt  disposed  to  offer  him  were  scorn- 
fully rejected.  Siege  OF  Tyre 

Egypt;  Founding  of  Alexandria (332  B.C.).  —  There  remained 
only  one  more  province  on  the  Mediterranean  to  be  secured, 
and  that  was  Egypt.  The  march  to  the  south,  however, 
was  blocked  at  Gaza,  a  strongly  fortified  town  defended  by 
its  faithful  governor,  Batis.  To  assault  these  walls  Alex- 
ander performed  another  great  feat  of  engineering  skill.  He 
built  a  mound  of  earth,  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high  and 
twelve  hundred  feet  broad  at  the  base,  around  the  entire  city. 
Although  repulsed  three  times,  he  finally  took  the  town  by 
storm.  He  put  to  death  what  remained  of  the  garrison,  and 
sold  the  women  and  children  into  slavery.  The  story  is  told 
that  the  heroic  defender,  Batis,  was  cruelly  bound  to  a  chariot 
and  dragged  to  death,  after  the  manner  in  which  Achilles  had 
treated  the  body  of  Hector.  The  way  was  now  opened  to 
Egypt,  which  welcomed  Alexander  as  a  deliverer.  The  prov- 
ince willingly  acknowledged  his  authority.  On  the  coast 
west  of  the  Delta,  he  founded  the  new  city  of  Alexan'dria, 
the  first  and  most  famous  of  many  towns  which  perpetuated 
his  name.  Thence  he  moved  westward  along  the  coast,  and 
then  southward  through  the  Libyan  desert  to  the  noted  temple 
and  oracle  of  Zeus  Amnion.  Here,  it  is  said,  the  oracle 
addressed  him  as  the  son  of  Zeus  and  the  future  conqueror 
morey's  greek  hist.  — 19 


312  THE    SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

of  the  world.     This  may  have  had  some  influence  upon  Alex- 
ander, in  leading  him  to  claim  divine  honors   for  himself. 


II.    Conquests  in  Central  and  Eastern  Asia 

Central  Persia;  Battle  of  Arbela  (331  b.c).  —  Having  organ- 
ized the  government  of  Egypt,  Alexander  returned  to  Tyre 
and  made  his  preparations  to  pierce  the  heart  of  the  Persian 
empire.  He  crossed  the  Euphrates  at  Thap'sacus,  and  passed 
through  Mesopotamia  beyond  the  Tigris.      In  a  broad   plain 

near  the  village   of   Gauga- 
me'la,  and  thirty  miles  west 


MACEDONIANS 


^<c,%$^      II  I  I  I  I  II  I     ^ 

ZZ       V  ^  ^    "^CARIUS    __     ^     _ 

PER  S  1  A  N  S 


of  Arbe'la,  he  came  face  to 

face   with  the  army  of  the 

great  king.     Here  was  to  be 

fought  the  battle  which  was 

to  decide  the  fate  of  Persia. 
Battle  of  "Arbela"  -,  .       t    r. 

,^    ,  ,,  oAft.  Since   his   defeat   at   Issus, 

(For  letters,  see  page  309.)  ' 

Darius  had  gathered  an  im- 
mense armament  which  rivaled  that  of  Xerxes,  —  a  million 
infantry,  forty  thousand  cavalry,  two  hundred  scythed  chariots, 
and  fifteen  elephants.  To  meet  this  host  Alexander  had  now 
an  army  of  forty  thousand  infantry  and  seven  thousand  cavalry. 
The  long  line  of  the  Persian  army  reached  far  beyond  his  own, 
and  threatened  to  overlap  his  wings.  And  so,  to  meet  this, 
he  placed  behind  each  wing  a  second  line,  which  could  resist 
an  attack  on  either  flank.  His  attack  began  with  a  cavalry 
charg^  toward  the  enemy's  left ;  and  this  he  suddenly  changed 
and  directed  in  the  form  of  a  wedge  against  the  center,  where 
Darius  himself  was  urging  on  his  troops.  The  frightened' 
king  fled;  his  army  became  demoralized;  while  the  rest  of 
Alexander's  troops  pressed  forward  and  gained  a  complete 
victory.  The  battle  at*  Gaugamela  —  usually  called  the 
"battle  of  Arbela"  —  sealed  the  doom  of  the  empire.  Alex- 
ander then  moved  south  to  Babylon,  which  surrendered  to 
him ;  next  to  Susa,  which  also  opened  its  gates ;  and  then  to 


ALEXANDER  AND  THE  CONQUEST  OF  THE  EAST   313 

Persep'olis,  which  was  taken  after  a  feeble  resistance.  These 
three  cities  were  the  richest  in  the  world ;  and  by  their  cap- 
ture Alexander  came  into  possession  of  immense  treasures. 
He  proclaimed  himself  the  monarch  of  Persia,  which  he  no 
doubt  had  a  right  to  do ;  but  he  disgraced  his  name  by  wan- 
tonly firing  with  his  own  hand  the  magnificent  palace  at 
Persepolis. 

Pursuit  and  Death  of  Darius  (330  b.c).  —  With  the  Persian 
empire  at  his  feet,  Alexander  next  marched  north  to  Ecbat'ana 
in  pursuit  of  the  fugitive  king,  Darius.  At  his  approach  the 
king  fled  toward  Parthia.  Leaving  at  Ecbatana  his  most  trusted 
general,  Parmenio,  who  had  commanded  his  left  wing  in  all 
his  great  battles,  Alexander  pressed  on,  through  the  Caspian 
Gates,  to  a  town  (Hecatom'pylus)  on  the  borders  of  Parthia. 
He  here  learned  that  Darius  had  just  been  killed  by  Bessus, 
who  had  declared  himself  king  of  Bac'tria.  Alexander  obtained 
the  body  of  Darius  and  delivered  it  to  the  queen  mother,  thus 
following  the  example  of  Achilles,  who  had  delivered  up  the 
body  of  Hector  to  his  father,  Priam. 

The  Far  East ;  Battle  of  the  Hydaspes  (326  b.c).  —  Alexander 
had  now  traversed  the  western  and  central  provinces  of  the 
empire.  There  remained  the  far  eastern  provinces,  which  had 
been  but  loosely  joined  to  Persia.  He  subdued  the  tribes  of 
Hyrca'nia  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  He 
brought  under  his  authority  Parthia,  and  to  the  south  the 
provinces  of  A'ria  and  Drangia'na.  Turning  again  to  the  north 
he  established  his  power  over  Bactria  and  Sogdia'na,  and 
planted  on  the  river  Jaxar'tes  a  new  Alexandria,  the  extreme 
northern  limit  of  his  conquests.  It  was  during  this  period  that 
Alexander  blackened  his  name  by  two  of  his  most  infamous 
crimes.  The  one  was  the  assassination  of  his  faithful  general, 
Parmenio,  on  the  charge  of  conspiracy;  the  other  was  the 
murder,  in  a  fit  of  drunken  frenzy,  of  his  dearest  friend,  Clitus, 
who  had  saved  his  life  at  the  battle  of  the  Granicus.  Of  these 
dastardly  crimes,  it  can  only  be  said  in  extenuation  that  he  bit- 
terly repented  of  them. 


314  THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

Not  satisfied  with  the  conquest  of  Persia,  Alexander  crossed 
the  Indus,  and  proceeded  through  the  Punjab  to  the  river 
Hy das 'pes.  Here,  after  a  severe  engagement,  he  gained  a 
victory  over  the  armies  of  India,  led  by  Porus,  the  most  able 
king  of  the  Far  East.  Struck  by  the  royal  bearing  of  Porus, 
Alexander  made  him  viceroy  of  his  new  Indian  province.  The 
Macedonian  soldiers,  now  wearied  with  years  of  marching  and 
fighting,  refused  to  go  farther  into  unknown  lands ;  and  Alex- 
ander was  obliged  to  return.  Down  the  Indus  and  through 
the  sands  of  Gedro'sia  and  Carma'nia,  his  army  marched  back 
to  Persepolis  and  Susa;  while  his  fleet  explored  anew  the 
ancient  water  route  from  the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates.  Alex- 
ander repaired  to  Babylon,  now  the  capital  of  his  newly  con- 
quered world. 

Death  and  Character  of  Alexander.  —  On  his  return  to  Babylon 
Alexander  did  not  rest.  He  hoped  to  push  his  conquests  into 
Arabia,  and  to  give  a  firmer  organization  to  his  Graeco-Oriental 
empire.  But  in  a  short  time  he  was  stricken  down  by  a  fever, 
and  died  (323  b.c.)  at  the  age  of  thirty-two  years  and  eight 
months.  His  last  words  were  a  request  that  the  empire  be 
given  "  to  the  most  worthy."  His  body  was  carried  to  Egypt, 
and  was  buried  at  Alexandria  with  divine  honors. 

What  shall  be  thought  of  Alexander  ?  This  is  a  question 
upon  which  there  has  been  much  difference  of  opinion.  Some 
have  regarded  him  as  scarcely  more  than  a  brilliant  military 
adventurer.  Others  have  looked  upon  him  as  having  done 
more  for  the  world's  civilization  than  any  other  human  being. 
Without  assuming  too  much  confidence  in  our  own  opinion,  let 
us  look  at  his  chief  characteristics  as  a  man,  as  a  soldier,  and 
as  a  statesman. 

As  a  man  Alexander  possessed  remarkable  natural  endow- 
ments—  a  body  of  great  beauty,  agility,  and  strength,  capable 
of  extraordinary  feats  of  endurance ;  a  mind  of  transcendent 
genius,  of  restless  activity,  of  wonderful  powers  of  insight,  of 
broad  and  comprehensive  views,  prolific  in  resources,  and  un- 
erring in  the  adjustment  of  means  to  ends  ;  a  will  power  such 


ALEXANDER  AND   THE   CONQUEST  OF  THE  EAST     317 

government  than  those  which  had  hitherto  prevailed  in  the  East ; 
and  these  may  have  had  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  later  mon- 
archies of  the  East,  and  perhaps  upon  the  later  Roman  empire. 
But  it  remains  true  that  the  empire  which  he  himself  carved 
out  with  the  sword  fell  to  pieces  almost  immediately  after  his 
death.  Yet  we  must  regard  Alexander  as  a  great  and  efficient 
agent  in  advancing  civilization  ;  for  by  breaking  down  the  bar- 
riers which  separated  the  Greek  and  the  "barbarian,"  he 
paved  the  way  for  the  spread  of  a  higher  culture;  and  this 
event  marks  a  new  epoch  in  the  world's  history. 

III.   Dissolution   of   Alexander's  Empire 

Wars  of  Succession ;  Battle  of  Ipsus  (301  b.c).  —  The  power 
of  Alexander  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  no  one  else  was  able  to 
wield  the  authority  which  he  himself  had  exercised.  The 
years  which  followed  his  death  were  years  of  intrigue  and  war 
between  his  different  generals.  Various  attempts  were  made 
to  keep  the  empire  together.  At  first  Perdic'cas  tried  to  rule. 
He  divided  the  provinces  among  the  other  chieftains,  who,  how- 
ever, refused  to  recognize  his  authority.  Afterward  Antig'onus 
aspired  to  the  position  of  great  king.  But  he  was  opposed 
by  the  other  generals,  who  were  themselves  getting  control  of 
various  provinces — Cassan'der  of  Macedonia,  Lysim'achus 
of  Thrace,  Seleu'cus  of  Syria,  and  Ptol'emy  of  Egypt.  After 
years  of  bitter  strife,  Antigonus  was  defeated  and  slain  at  the 
battle  of  Ipsus  in  Phrygia;  and  the  victorious  generals  divided 
among  themselves  the  fragments  of  the  empire. 

Kingdom  of  the  SeleucidaB;  Syria.  — Even  before  the  battle  of 
Ipsus,  Seleucus  had  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  Baby- 
lon and  a  large  part  of  the  eastern  provinces.  He  now  re- 
ceived in  addition  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  the  eastern  part  of 
Asia  Minor.  He  removed  his  capital  from  Babylon  to  Antioch 
in  Syria;  but  in  this  way  he  also  weakened  his  hold  upon  his 
eastern  provinces.  He  divided  his  whole  territory  into 
seventy-two  satrapies,  ruled  not  by  natives  but  by  Greeks  and 


318  THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

Macedonians.  The  eastern  provinces  were  intrusted  to  his  son 
Anti'ochus,  who  afterward  succeeded  to  his  father's  throne 
(280  B.C.).  This  extensive  empire  was  known  as  Syria,  or  the 
"Kingdom  of  the  Seleu'cidse,"  and  remained  the  greatest  power 
in  Asia  until  the  Roman  conquest  (64  b.c). 

Kingdom  of  the  Ptolemies  ;  Egypt.  —  Ptolemy  I.  (Soter)  was 
one  of  Alexander's  generals  who  was  put  in  possession  of  Egypt 
directly  after  the  death  of  the  conqueror,  and  had  maintained 
himself  there  during  the  wars  of  succession.  He  afterward 
added  to  his  kingdom  Palestine,  lower  Syria  (Coele-Syria),  and 
Cyprus.  Under  his  administration  and  that  of  his  succes- 
sors Egypt  rose  to  prosperity  and  greatness.  The  first  Ptolemy 
organized  the  kingdom  into  provinces  based  upon  the  ancient 
nomes ;  but  the  civil  and  military  authority  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  Greeks  and  Macedonians.  Alexandria  became 
the  great  commercial  emporium  of  the  Me(^Berranean,  and  the 
center  of  the  world's  learning.  Egypt  remained  the  land  of 
commerce  and  of  culture  until  it  was  absorbed  by  the  Roman 
empire  (30  b.c). 

Kingdom  of  Macedonia  and  Greece.  —  After  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Greeks  made  a  fresh  attempt  to  throw  off  the  power 
of  Macedonia.  This  unsuccessful  revolt,  which  is  known  as  the 
"  Lamian  war  "  (323-321  b.c),  was  inspired  chiefly  by  Demos- 
thenes, who  after  its  disastrous  close  fled  from  Athens  and 
took  his  own  life  by  poison.  The  Greeks  still  remained  un^er 
the  influence  of  Macedonia  ;  and  their  political  history  has  iio 
unusual  interest  for  us  until  the  rise  of  the  Achaean  and  ^to- 
lian  leagues,  which  we  shall  notice  hereafter.  After  the  battle 
of  Ipsus,  Macedonia  fell  into  the  hands  of  Cassander,  who  re- 
ceived it  as  his  share  of  Alexander's  empire.  His  successors 
were  chiefly  occupied  in  maintaining  their  influence  over  the 
Greek  cities,  until  they  came  into  contact  with  the  rising  power 
of  Rome. 

Minor  Fragments  of  the  Empire.  —  Besides  these  most  impor- 
tant fragments  of  Alexander's  empire,  there  arose  a  number  of 
smaller  states  which  w^e  need  only  mention   here.     The  ter- 


ALEXANDER  AND  THE  CONQUEST  OF  THE  EAST   319 

ritory  comprising  Thrace  and  portions  of  Asia  Minor  had  been 
granted  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus  to  Lysimachus.  But  this 
kingdom  soon  fell  to  pieces.  Thrace  was  attached  to  Macedo- 
nia ;  and  in  Asia  Minor  there  grew  up  the  new  kingdoms  of 
Fer'gamum,  Bithyn'ia,  Paphlago'nia,  Cappado'cia,  and  the 
island  republic  of  Rhodes,  which  included  some  of  the  cities  on 
the  adjacent  coast. 

SELECTIONS    FOR    READING 

Smith,  Ch.  44,  "Alexander  the  Great  "  (10). i 

Curteis,  Ch.  9,  "Alexander  in  Asia  Minor"  (17). 

Allcroft,  Vol.  v.,  Ch.  9,  "From  Granicas  to  Arbela  "  (10). 

Bury,  Ch.  17,  "Conquest  of  Persia"  (10). 

Wheeler,  Alexander,  Ch.  19,  "The  Siege  of  Tyre"  (27). 

Holm,  Vol.    III.,  Ch.   26,  "Concluding  Years  of  Alexander's   Reign" 

(11). 
Dodge,  Alexander,  Ch.  27,  "Arbela"  (27). 
Timayenis,  Vol.  II.,  Part  IX.,  "  The  Successors  "  (11). 
Mahaffy,  Survey,  Ch.  8,  "Alexander  and  his  Successors"  (10). 
Arrian,  Anabasis,  Bk.  I.,  Chs.  12-17,  Battle  of  the  Granicus  (13). 

SPECIAL   STUDY 

The  Character  or  Alexander. — Oman,  Ch.  44  (10);  Wheeler, 
Alexander,  Ch.  31  (27)  ;  Curteis,  Ch.  17  (17)  ;  Allcroft,  Vol.  V.,  pp.  155- 
158  (10);  Holm,  Vol.  III.,  Ch.  27  (11);  Freeman,  pp.  161-206  (12); 
Mahaffy,  Problems,  Ch.  8  (12)  ;  Dodge,  Alexander,  Ch.  48  (27)  ;  Plutarch, 
"Alexander"  (13). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  fouud. 


CHAPTER    XXVI 

GREEK   CULTURE   AND  THE   EASTERN   WORLD 
I.   Hellenic  and  Hellenistic  Culture 

Alexander  and  Hellenism.  —  The  real  greatness  of  Alexander 
rests  upon  the  fact  that  he  put  himself  in  harmony  with  the 
highest  civilization  of  his  age,  and  gave  to  it  the  character  of 
a  world  culture.  It  was,  in  fact,  the  alliance  of  Alexander 
with  Hellenism  that  created  a  new  epoch  in  the  world's  history. 
Without  the  civilization  of  Greece  at  his  back,  the  conquests 
of  Alexander  might  have  had  scarcely  more  significance  than 
those  of  other  great  warriors.  On  the  other  hand,  without 
Alexander  for  its  champion,  Greek  civilization  might  not 
have  attained  its  world-wide  influence.  We  should,  therefore, 
think  of  Alexander  not  so  much  as  tTie^  one  who  conquered 
thfi.Jila'Stern  world  as  the  one  who  paved  the  way  for  the 
spread  of  Greek  civilization.  While  we  give  him  person- 
ally all  the  credit  due  him  as  a  conqueror  and  civilizer,  we 
must  still  remember  that  the  regeneration  which  he  wrought 
was  due  ultimately  to  the  great  superiority  and  civilizing 
influence  of  the  culture  of  Greece. 

Hellenic  Culture  in  Greece.  —  In  taking  a  brief  review  of  the 
general  culture  which  had  its  beginning  in  this  period,  we 
may  first  look  at  Greece  itself,  where  the  Hellenic  spirit  was 
least  affected  by  Oriental  influences.  Athens  was  still  the 
center  of  Grecian  life  and  thought.  Here  flourished  the  men 
who  represented  better  than  elsewhere  the  continuance  of  the 
old  Hellenic  spirit.  Here  Demosthenes  and  iEschines  con- 
tinued to  deliver  their  orations  in  pure  Attic  Greek,  while 
Macedonia  was  winning  her  way  to  power.  Here  Aristotle 
continued  to  write  his  works  on  philosophy  and  science,  while 

320 


GREEK  CULTURE   AND   THE   EASTERN  WORLD       321 


Alexander  was  extending  his 
arms  to  the  Indus.  Here  com- 
edy continued  to  flourish  in 
the  writings  of  Menan'der; 
and  painting  survived  in  the 
famous  portraits  and  other 
works  produced  by  Apelles. 
These  men  represented  the  old 
Hellenic  culture  —  a  culture 
which  had  been  developing  in 
Greece  since  the  days  of  the 
Persian  wars,  but  which  was 
destined  to  lose  its  Attic  purity 
by  contact  with  the  thought 
and  spirit  of  the  East.  Menander 

Post-Aristotelian  Philosophy.  —  One  of  the  evidences  of  the 
influence  of  the  East  upon  the  native  culture  of  Greece  is 
seen  in  the  growth  of  certain  new  schools  of  philosophy  which 
followed  Aristotle.  These  schools  were  a  protest,  not  only 
against  the  old  religious  ideas  of  the  Greeks,  but  also  against 
the  foreign  superstitions  which  were  coming  into  Greece  from 
the  East.  The  foremost  of  these  schools  were  the  Epicure'an 
and  the  Stoic.  The  Epicurean  school  took  its  name  from 
Epicu'rus,  who  was  born  at  Samos  and  had  taught  in  the  cities 
of  Asia  Minor  before  he  came  to  Athens.  Epicurus  tried  to 
rescue  men  from  the  influence  of  superstition  and  the  old 
mythological  ideas  concerning  the  gods.  According  to  his 
teachings,  if  there  are  any  gods  such  as  people  imagine,  they 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  world  and  with  human  life. 
Men  should  be  influenced,  not  by  the  fear  of  the  gods,  but  by 
the  desire  to  obtain  the  highest  happiness  —  not  the  passing 
pleasure  of  the  hour,  but  the  permanent  happiness  of  a  life- 
time. The  Stoic  philosophy,  which  was  a  higher  system  than 
the  Epicurean,  was  founded  by  Zeno.  He  taught  in  the  Stoa 
Poecile  (Painted  Porch),  from  which  his  school  received  its 
name.     He  also  rejected  the  prevailing  mythological  notion?, 


322  THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

and  believed  that  the  world  is  governed  by  a  Universal 
Keason  which  is  revealed  in  the  laws  of  nature.  According  to 
Zeno,  men  should  live,  not  to  appease  the  gods,  but  to  conform 
to  the  highest  "law  of  nature."  He  also  sympathized  with 
the  broader  ideas  of  the  age,  and  believed  that  men's  duties 
should  not  be  limited  to  their  own  city  or  even  to  Greece,  but 
should  extend  to  all  mankind. 

In  these  new  schools  of  philosophy  we  may  see  some  of  the 
influences  of  the  new  period  —  the  influx  of  Oriental  supersti- 
tion which  these  schools  tried  to  withstand,  and  also  the  desire 
to  enter  into  the  new  world  spirit  which  followed  the  break- 
ing down  of  national  barriers.  The  new  philosophy  taught 
that  every  one  should  be,  not  simply  a  member  of  his  own  city, 
but  a  "  citizen  of  the  world." 

The  Spread  of  Hellenism  in  the  East.  —  But  the  most  interest- 
ing feature  of  this  age  is  not  so  much  the  influence  of 
Oriental  ideas  upon  the  old  culture  of  Greece,  as  the  diffusion 
of  the  Hellenic  culture  into  other  parts  of  the  world  —  that  is, 
the  "  Hellenizing"  of  the  Orient.  This  was  due,  not  only  to 
the  work  of  Alexander  himself,  but  to  the  continuance  of  his 
policy  by  his  successors.  Like  him,  they  also  planted  new 
cities,  placed  over  them  Greek  and  Macedonian  governors,  en- 
couraged Greek  colonization,  introduced  the  customs  of  Greek 
life,  favored  the  use  of  the  Greek  language,  and  patronized 
Greek  learning  and  art.  These  new  cities  became  new  centers 
of  Greek  civilization,  and  in  some  respects  they  surpassed 
the  older  cities  of  Greece.  The  accumulated  wealth  of  the 
East  was  used  to  construct  splendid  works  of  art,  fashioned 
upon  Greek  models  —  temples,  colonnades,  sculptures,  market 
places,  gardens.  The  ambition  of  princes  to  conquer  the  lands  of 
their  neighbors  became  tempered  by  the  desire  to  surpass  their 
rivals  as  patrons  of  art,  literature,  and  science.  In  such  ways 
as  these  the  Greeks  became  the  citizens  of  the  world,  and  the 
culture  of  Greece  became  the  heritage  of  other  people. 

Meaning  of  Hellenistic  Culture.  —  As  we  consider  this  great 
movement  by  which  the  Greek  language  and  civilization  were 


GREEK  CULTURE  AND  THE  EASTERN  WORLD       Z2^ 

gradually  extended  over  the  East,  there  is  one  important  point 
which  should  be  kept  in  mind.  This  is  the  fact  that  the 
culture  which  had  been  developed  by  the  Greeks  themselves 
was  considerably  modified  by  being  taken  up  by  the  people  of 
foreign  countries.  For  example,  the  Greek  language,  when 
spoken  by  a  Syrian,  a  Jew,  or  an  Egyptian,  would  no  longer 
remain  the  pure  language  of  Sophocles  or  Plato,  but  would 
acquire  features  foreign  to  the  Attic  tongue.  So  the  architec- 
ture and  sculpture  of  Greece  would  have  impressed  upon  them 
a  certain  Oriental  character  and  spirit,  which  would  distin- 
guish them  from  the  art  of  Phidias  and  Praxiteles.  To  this 
Greek  culture  modified  by  Oriental  influences  we  apply  the 
term  "  Hellenistic, "  to  distinguish  it  from  the  purer  Greek 
culture  of  the  Greeks  themselves,  which  we  call  "  Hellenic. " 
The  Hellenistic  culture,  then,  refers  to  the  language  and  civi- 
lization of  the  people  of  the  East  who  adopted  the  speech  and 
culture  of  the  Greeks.  It  is,  in  short,  the  Orientalized  form  of 
Hellenism.^  The  Greek  influence  extended  into  central  Asia 
and  as  far  east  as  the  Indus ;  but  the  chief  seats  of  the 
Hellenistic  culture  were  the  countries  on  the  eastern  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean  —  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt. 

II.   Hellenistic  Culture  in  Asia  Minor 

Pergamum  as  a  Center  of  Culture.  —  We  remember  that  from 
very  early  times  the  coast  cities  of  Asia  Minor  had  been  in 
the  possession  of  the  Greeks,  and  were  in  fact  the  primitive 
seats  of  the  Hellenic  civilization.  But  as  the  result  of  Per- 
sian encroachments,  they  had  become  estranged  from  Greece  and 
had  fallen  under  Oriental  influence.  The  new  culture,  there- 
fore, which  now  sprang  up  in  Asia  Minor  after  the  conquests 
of  Alexander,  was  really  Hellenistic,  though  possessing  less 
foreign  elements  than  the  culture  either  of  Syria  or  of  Egypt. 
The  chief  seat  of  the  new  civilization  in  Asia  Minor  was  the 

1  For  the  proper  use  of  the  term  "  Hellenistic,"  see  Holm,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  5, 
note. 


324 


THE   SPREAD  OF  HELLENISM 


city  of  Pergamum  —  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  same 
name.  The  kings  of  this  country  came  to  be  wealthy  and 
somewhat  powerful  monarchs.  They  gained  an  enviable  repu- 
tation by  ending  the  depredations  of  the  Gauls  —  a  barbarian 
people  who   in  the  third  century  invaded  Greece  and  Asia 


The  Great  Altar  at  Pergamum  (Restoration) 

Minor,  and  were  finally  settled  in  the  province  of  Gala'tia, 
in  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor.  This  victory  over  the  Gauls 
was  the  great  heroic  event  in  the  history  of  Pergamum,  and 
was  commemorated  in  many  works  of  art. 

Architecture  and  Sculpture  of  Pergamum.  —  The  kings  of 
Pergamum  adorned  their  capital  with  splendid  buildings,  which 
rivaled  the  architecture  of  Athens.  Here  we  find  an  agora, 
surrounded  by  public  buildings  and  porticoes.  Here  we  find  a 
theater,  temples,  and  colonnades  like  those  of  Greece.  The 
central  architectural  feature  of  the  city  was  a  vast  altar  dedi- 
cated to  Zeus  Soter  (the  Savior).  This  was  built  by  Eu'menes 
II.  to  commemorate  the  victory  over  the  barbarian  Gauls,  and 
the  divine  assistance  then  given.  The  altar  was  situated  on 
the  summit  of  the  acropolis,  said  to  have  been  more  than 
eight  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.    It  was  adorned 


GREEK   CULTURE   AND   THE   EASTERN   WORLD       325 

with  elaborate  sculptures  and  especially  with  a  gigantic  frieze 
on  which  was  represented  the  battle  between  the  gods  and 
the  barbarian  giants.  This  altar  with  its  decorations  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  ancient  world.  We 
have  preserved  to  us  a  valuable  relic  of  the  Pergamean  art, 
and  also  of  the  Gallic  invasion,  in  the  well-known  copy  of 
the  Dying  Gaul,  usually  called  the  "Dying  Gladiator."  This 
is  worth  our  careful  study  as  a  specimen  of  Hellenistic  art, 
showing  a  departure  from  the  purest  Greek  models  in  the  real- 
istic representation  of  a  wounded  barbarian  warrior. 


The  Dying  Gaul 

Literature  and  Science  of  Pergamum.  —  This  city  was  a  center 
not  only  of  art,  but  also  of  learning.  Although  it  made  no 
important  contributions  to  literature,  it  was  distinguished  for 
a  remarkable  collection  of  literary  works  —  a  library  of  two 
hundred  thousand  volumes,  which  rivaled  the  more  renowned 
collection  at  Alexandria.  Books,  or  rather  manuscripts,  had 
previously  been  written  upon  Egyptian  papyrus.  But  as  the 
exportation   of  this    material   was  prohibited  by   the   Egyp- 


326 


THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 


tians,  the  kings  of  Pergamum  adopted  in  its  place  the  skins 
of  animals  (called  Pergamence  chartce,  from  which  comes  our 
word  ''parchment").  The  city  of  Pergamum  also  became  the 
home  of  many  scientific  men,  —  grammarians,  mathematicians, 
natural  philosophers,  and  physicians,  —  of  whom  many  acquired 
great  renown,  as  Cra'tes  in  philology,  and  Galen  in  medicine. 

The  School  of  Rhodes.  —  Another  important  center  of  Hellen- 
istic culture  in  Asia  Minor  was  Khodes,  famous  for  its  school 
of  rhetoric  and  its  code  of  maritime  law.  The  art  of  Rhodes 
reveals  the  same  Oriental  influences  that  appeared  at  Perga- 
mum. This  is  seen  in  the 
taste  for  colossal  figures 
and  impressive  groups  of 
statuary.  The  famous  Co- 
lossus of  lihodes,  a  statue 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
high,  was  reckoned  as  one 
of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
world.  The  most  impor- 
tant example  of  Rhodian 
sculpture  that  remains  to 
us  is  the  group  of  Laoc'- 
oon,  a  priest  of  Apollo, 
and  his  sons,  who  were 
destroyed  by  serpents  sent 
by  Athena.  The  agony 
depicted  upon  the  face  of 
the  priest,  though  wonder- 
fully expressive,  is  far  removed  from  the  calm  repose  which 
marks  the  purer  Hellenic  art. 

Examples  of  Pure  Hellenic  Art.  —  As  we  study  the  art  of  what 
is  called  the  "Hellenistic  period,"  we  should  bear  in  mind  the 
fact  that  not  all  the  works  produced  at  this  time  show  in  an 
.equal  degree  the  influence  of  Orientalism.  Some  works  show 
this  influence  to  a  greater,  and  some  to  a  less  extent.  Before 
we  leave  the  shores  of  the  ^gean,  we  should  therefore  notice 


Laocoon  and  his  Son^ 


GREEK   CULTURE   AND   THE   EASTERN    WORLD       327 


^^ 


Head  of  the  Apollo  Belvedere 

at  least  two  examples  of  the  art  of  this  period  which  preserve 
in  the  greatest  degree  the  pure  Hellenic  spirit,  and  to  which 
is  given  a  high  rank  among  the  statues  of  the  world.  One 
of  these  is  the  Apollo  Belvedere,  which  is  now  generally  as- 
signed to  this  period,  although  the  place  where  it  was  produced 
is  not  known.  So  nearly  does  it  approach  the  perfect  Greek 
style,  that  it  has  been  said  that  in  it  "  we  see  Lysippus  in  the 
form  and  Praxiteles  in  the  face"  (Perry).  The  other  example 
of  the  pure  Hellenic  art  of  this  period,  and  one  which  is  per- 


328 


THE   SPREAD   OF    HELLENISM 


Head  of  the  Aphrodite  of  Melos 


haps  still  more  remark- 
able, is  the  Aphrodite 
found  on  the  island  of 
Melos,  and  usually  called 
the  "Venus  of  Melos." 
Scarcely  any  figure  of 
ancient  art  has  been  more 
admired  than  this.  The 
faces  of  these  two  marble 
statues  express  the  Greek 
ideal  of  perfect  masculine 
and  feminine  beauty.  In 
them  we  see  that  grace 
of  form  and  calmness  of 
spirit  which  the  Greeks 
regarded  as  essential  to 
the  purest  art. 


III.    Hellenistic  Culture  in  Syria 

The  Civilization  of  the  Seleucidae.  —  From  the  Greek  culture  of 
Asia  Minor,  in  which  the  Hellenic  spirit  predominated,  we 
pass  to  the  Greek  culture  of  Syria,  in  which  a  much  larger 
Oriental  element  may  be  seen.  Syria,  or  rather  the  king- 
dom of  the  Seleucidae,  was  the  largest  division  of  Alex- 
ander's empire,  extending  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Indus,  and  containing  the  most  wealthy  cities  of  the  East. 
The  Seleucidae  were  the  most  zealous  followers  of  Alex- 
ander in  the  founding  of  new  cities.  These  new  towns, 
which  numbered  more  than  seventy,  became  the  active  centers 
of  Greek  influence.  They  were  colonized  by  Greeks.  In  them 
the  Greek  language  was  spoken ;  Greek  methods  of  city  gov- 
ernment were  adopted;  the  commercial  spirit  of  the  Greeks  was 
present ;  and  Greek  buildings  were  erected.  But  these  Greek 
towns,  springing  up  by  the  side  of  the  older  Asiatic  cities,  felt 
the   influence   of   Oriental  custom's   and   ideas.     The   Greeks 


GREEK   CULTURE   AND   THE   EASTERN   WORLD       329 

absorbed  the  Oriental  love  of  wealth  and  passion  for  luxury, 
and  developed  a  form  of  life  which  was  neither  purely  Greek 
nor  purely  Eastern,  but  a  mingling  of  the  two  —  a  composite 
culture  in  which  the  Oriental  features  were  improved  and  the 
Hellenic  features  debased. 

Antioch  as  a  Center  of  Culture.  —  The  city  which  presents  the 
most  conspicuous  type  of  this  Grseco-Oriental  or  Hellenistic 
culture  in  Syria  was  An'tioch,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  The 
original  city  was  founded  by  Seleucus  I.  (Mca'tor),  and  named  in 
honor  of  his  father  Antiochus.  The  great  influx  of  ]3opulation 
compelled  a  second,  a  third,  and  a  fourth  addition,  so  that  the 
city  became  at  last  a  quadruple  city  (tetrapoUs).  Here  gathered 
the  people  of  many  nations ;  but  the  prevailing  form  of  culture 
was  Greek,  imbued  with  the  Oriental  taste  for  magnificence. 
The  buildings  glistened  with  precious  stones  and  ornaments 
of  gold.  The  broad,  regular  streets  were  lined  with  the  most 
splendid  porticoes,  colonnades,  and  statues.  Beyond  the  walls 
of  the  city  was  the  cypress  grove  of  Daphne,  said  to  be  one  of 
the  most  attractive  places  in  the  world.  It  contained  the  tree 
of  Daphne,  into  which  this  nymph,  according  to  tradition,  was 
changed  when  fleeing  from  Apollo.  The  grove  was  reached  by 
a  road  passing  through  beautiful  villas  and  gardens  enlivened 
with  fountains  and  medicinal  springs.  It  was  adorned  with 
stately  temples,  baths,  and  places  of  amusement.  In  the 
temple  of  Apollo  was  a  colossal  statue  of  that  god,  said  to 
rival  the  Zeus  of  Phidias.  All  this  fondness  for  luxury  shows 
that  the  Greeks,  while  exercising  a  powerful  influence  upon 
the  East,  were  themselves  coming  under  the  spell  of  Orien- 
talism. 

Attempt  to  Hellenize  the  Jews.  —  The  only  opposition  to  the 
Hellenizing  movement  in  western  Asia  appeared  in  Judea. 
Here  the  people  were  attached  to  their  ancient  language  and 
religion.  It  is  said  that  Alexander  offered  strong  inducements 
for  the  Jews  to  settle  in  Alexandria,  where  they  could  retain 
their  religion  unmolested.  Many  of  them  took  advantage  of  this 
offer ;  but  while  preserving  their  own  religion,  they  could  not 
morey's  greek  hist, — 20 


330  THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

help  imbibing  much  of  the  Hellenistic  spirit.  In  Judea  itself, 
however,  the  people  succeeded  in  resisting  these  foreign  in- 
fluences. It  is  true  that  the  Jewish  magnates  in  Palestine 
sometimes  affected  the  Greek  culture,  by  learning  to  speak 
the  Greek  language  and  adopting  Greek  names;  but  the 
mass  of  the  people  clung  to  their  Hebrew  language  and  cus- 
toms. When  Palestine  passed  from  the  control  of  Egypt  to 
that  of  Syria,  a  systematic  attempt  was  made  by  the  Syrian 
king  Antiochus  IV.  (Epiph'anes)  to  force  upon  the  Jews  the 
Greek  language  and  customs,  including  the  Greek  religion. 
This  was  accompanied  by  a  most  unjust  and  bitter  persecution. 
It  aroused  a  national  revolt,  which  ended  only  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  independence  of  the  Jewish  nation. 

IV.   Hellenistic  Culture  in  Egypt 

Alexandria  as  a  Center  of  Culture. — In  Egypt  we  find  the 
most  important  intellectual  center  of  the  Hellenistic  world. 
The  Ptolemies  did  not,  like  the  Seleucidse,  attempt  to  bring 
the  whole  kingdom  under  Greek  influence  by  the  erection  of 
many  new  cities.  They  rather  attempted  to  concentrate  into 
a  single  focus  the  various  elements  of  Greek  culture.  This 
focus  was  the  city  of  Alexandria,  founded  by  the  great 
conqueror  himself.  It  was  first  of  all  a  commercial  center, 
taking  the  place  of  Tyre  as  the  important  emporium  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  came  to  be  the  most  cosmopolitan  city  of 
the  world,  with  a  population  of  nearly  a  million  inhabitants, 
made  up  of  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Macedonians,  Jews,  and  people 
from  nearly  every  Asiatic  country.  The  ideas  of  various 
people  found  here  a  common  meeting  place.  The  Ptolemies 
respected  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians  and  that  of  the  Jews, 
while  clinging  to  their  own  Grecian  gods.  But  these  various 
religions  were  often  mingled  with  one  another.  The  god 
Sera'pis,  for  example,  was  a  deity  which  united  the  character 
of  the  Greek  Zeus  and  that  of  the  Egyptian  Osiris.  Though 
the  surrounding  country  was  not  attractive,  the  architecture  of 


GREEK   CULTURE    AND   THE   EASTERN   WORLD       381 

the  city  united  Greek  taste  with  Oriental  splendor.  There  were 
many  public  buildings,  such  as  theaters,  amphitheaters,  race 
courses,  and  sanctuaries ;  but  the  most  imposing  of  these  was 
the  Serape'um,  the  temple  of  the  common  god  Serapis. 

Museum  and  Library  of  Alexandria.  —  Alexandria  obtained  its 
highest  renown  as  the  home  of  scholars.  Here  we  find  blended 
the  Greek  and  the  Egyptian  taste  for  philosophy  and  science. 
The  most  famous  work  of  the  Ptolemies  was  the  establishment 
of  the  Museum  and  the  Library.  The  Museum  was  a  collec- 
tion of  buildings  dedicated  to  the  Muses,  and  might  not 
inaptly  be  called  a  '^  University."  Here  were  gathered  the 
philosophers,  scholars,  and  students  of  all  countries — Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  Judea,  Babylon,  and  even  India.  It  is  said  that 
at  one  time  as  many  as  fourteen  thousand  students  found 
a  home  in  Alexandria.  In  connection  with  the  Museum 
were  botanical  and  zoological  gardens,  dissecting  rooms,  and 
astronomical  observatories.  But  the  most  famous  of  these 
buildings  was  the  great  Alexandrian  Library,  containing  over 
five  hundred  thousand  manuscripts.  It  was  the  desire  of  the 
Ptolemies  to  possess  an  authentic  copy  of  every  existing  work 
of  Greek  literature.  This  library  was  the  most  extensive  col- 
lection of  manuscripts  in  the  ancient  world. 

The  Literature  and  Scholarship  of  Alexandria.  —  The  kind  of 
literary  work  done  at  Alexandria  was  less  creative  than  critical. 
The  literature  which  was  produced  at  this  time  was  mostly 
elegiac  and  lyric  poetry.  One  poet  of  this  period  holds  the 
first  rank  among  the  pastoral  poets  of  the  world  ;  this  poet  was 
Theoc'ritus.  Although  born  at  Syracuse,  he  lived  at  Alexan- 
dria. His  "  Idylls,"  describing  the  beauties  of  nature,  have 
been  admired  by  all  people,  and  perhaps  approach  more  nearly 
than  any  other  literature  of  this  period  to  the  pure  aesthetic 
spirit  of  the  early  Greeks.  His  contemporaries  in  a  similar 
class  of  poetry,  Bion  of  Ionia  and  Moschus  of  Syracuse, 
although  greatly  esteemed,  do  not  possess  an  equal  felicity  and 
charm.  History  also  was  cultivated  by  Manetho,  an  Egyptian 
priest,    who   wrote  the   "Chronicles   of  Egypt";   while    the 


3^2  THE    SPREAD   OF    HELLENISM 

Babylonian  Berosus  was  doing  a  similar  kind  of  work  for  Chal- 
dean history.  But  the  most  thorough  literary  scholarship  of 
Alexandria  was  devoted  to  the  critical  study  of  the  ancient 
Greek  texts.  Aristar'chus  may  be  called  the  father  of  textual 
criticism  and  the  science  of  grammar.  Translations,  too, 
formed  a  part  of  the  work  of  these  Alexandrian  scholars.  The 
most  noted  of  these  translations  was  the  Septuagint,  a  Greek 
version  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  * 

The  Alexandrian  Science  and  Philosophy.  —  Alexandria  was 
a  meeting  place  for  Greek  and  Oriental  science  ;  and  a  great  im- 
pulse was  given  in  the  direction  of  a  more  strictly  scientific 
method.  There  are  many  famous  names  of  scientists  connected 
with  this  seat  of  ancient  learning.  Euclid  was  the  founder  of 
our  modern  geometry.  Modern  astronomy  has  grown  out  of 
the  works  of  Hippar'chus  and  Ptolemy.  Eratos'thenes  was  the 
first  to  give  a  mathematical  estimate  of  the  size  of  the  earth. 
Archime'des,  a  native  of  Syracuse,  came  here  to  study;  he  was 
a  noted  mathematician,  and  made  brilliant  discoveries  in 
physical  and  mechanical  science.  In  Alexandria,  also,  we  see 
in  later  times  a  remarkable  mingling  of  the  philosophical  ideas 
of  the  world  —  Greek  idealism,  Jewish  monotheism.  Oriental 
mysticism,  and  afterward  even  Christian  theology.  But  the 
complex  systems  which  grew  up  under  such  names  as  "  Neo- 
Platonism"  and  "  Gnosticism,"  we  need  not  attempt  to  explain. 
For  us  they  simply  illustrate,  like  the  other  phases  of  Alex- 
andrian culture,  the  various  ideas  and  forms  of  thought  result- 
ing from  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  the  Oriental  world  which 
followed  the  conquests  of  Alexander. 

SELECTIONS    FOR    READING 

Felton,  Vol.  XL,  pp.  275-278,  "Spread  of  Hetlenism"  (ll).i 
Timayenis,  Vol.  XL,  pp.  237-242,  "  Hellenism  in  ftie  East"  (11). 
Holm,  Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  14,  "Culture  of  the  Greek  World,  300-220  b.c." 
(11). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


GREEK   CULTURE   AND   THE   EASTERN   WORLD       333 

Mahaffy,  Survey,  Ch.  9,  "The  Hellenistic  World"  (10). 

Greek  Life,  Ch.  9,  "Alexandria  and  its  Rivals"  (17). 

Gardner,  P.,  Ch.  15,  "Successors   of   Alexander    and    Greek    Civiliza- 
tion" (14). 
Gardner,  E.  A.,  Handbook,  Ch.  5,  "The  Hellenistic  Age"  (19). 
Tarbell,  Ch.  10,  "  Hellenistic  Period  of  Greek  Sculpture"  (19). 
Perry,  Ch.  45,  "  Plastic  Art  in  Rhodes  "  (19). 

SPECIAL  STUDV 

The  Alexandrian  School.  —  Mahaffy,  Survey,  pp.  282-284  (10)  ; 
Mahaffy,  Greek  Life,  Chs.  9-12  (17)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  20  (11)  ; 
Draper's  Intellectual  Development  in  Europe,  pp.  138-153. 


PERIOD   VII.     UNION   or   GREECE   AND   THE   OCCIDENT 
(229-146   B.C.) 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

MACEDONIA  AND  THE   GREEK   FEDERATIONS 
I.    The  Decline  of  Macedonia 

Character  of  the  New  Period. — If  the  study  of  the  previous 
period  has  shown  to  us  the  extension  of  Greek  civilization  to 
the  East,  the  study  of  the  present  period  will  show  to  us  a 
movement  quite  as  important  —  the  extension  of  Greek  civili- 
zation to  the  West.  In  this  movement  Macedonia  continues 
to  play  a  certain  part,  but  a  part  entirely  different  from  that 
taken  in  the  previous  period.  Then  we  saw  that  Greece  was 
brought  into  relations  with  the  Eastern  world,  by  the  Mace- 
donian conquest  of  Persia.  Now  we  shall  see  that  Greece  is 
brought  into  relation  with  the  Western  world  by  the  Roman 
conquest  of  Macedonia.  To  understand,  then,  the  manner  in 
which  Greece  became  united  to  the  Occident,  we  must  con- 
sider first  of  all  the  decline  of  the  Macedonian  power. 

External  Dangers  to  Macedonia.  —  kSince  the  breaking  up  of 
Alexander's  empire,  j\Iacedonia  had  suffered  from  external 
invasions  and  encroachments  which  left  her  in  an  impoverished 
and  distressed  condition.  The  vast  horde  of  barbarian  Gauls 
which  entered  Asia  Minor  (see  page  324)  had  previously  invaded 
Macedonia.  They  had  defeated  her  armies,  devastated  her 
territory,  and  weakened  her  resources.  Macedonia  had  also 
found  a  dangerous  rival  in  the  Molossian  kingdom,  which  had 
grown  up  near  by  on  the  shores  of  the  Ionian  Sea  in  Epirus 

3.S4 


MACEDONIA  AND  THE  GREEK  FEDERATIONS    335 

(see  map,  page  285).  This  kingdom  had  reached  its  highest 
power  under  Pyrrhus,  who  made  an  expedition  to  the  West  to 
assist  Tarentum  against  the  Eomans,  and  to  deliver  Sicily 
from  the  Carthaginians.  To  extend  his  .kingdom  Pyrrhus 
had  also  made  continual  encroachments  upon  Macedonia,  and 
had  twice  wrested  the  crown  from  the  Macedonian  kings. 
The  apparent  helplessness  of  Macedonia  in  the  presence  of 
her  foreign  enemies  is  sufficient  to  show  the  weak  condition 
into  which  she  had  fallen  since  the  days  of  Philip  and  Alex- 
ander the  Great. 

Character  of  the  Macedonian  Kings.  —  But  the  weakness  of 
Macedonia  is  especially  seen  in  the  character  of  her  later 
kings.  Their  reigns  were  characterized  by  ambition,  intrigue, 
treachery,  and  murder.  The  long  line  which  extended  from 
Cassander  to  Perseus  can  scarcely  show  a  name  which  is  not 
stained  by  some  dishonorable  or  criminal  act.  The  chief 
policy  of  these  kings  was  to  maintain  themselves  upon  the 
throne  against  the  schemes  of  their  rivals,  and  to  prevent  the 
Greek  cities  from  obtaining  their  independence. 

II.   The  ^tolian  and  Ach^an  Leagues 

The  -^tolian  League  in  Central  Greece.  —  While  the  Macedo- 
nian kings  were  trying  to  maintain  their  authority  in  Greece, 
there  came  into  prominence  two  confederations,  which  were 
the  most  important  factors  in  later  Greek  politics.  In  the 
course  of  time  they  came  to  include  the  most  important  states 
of  Greece,  except  Athens  and  Sparta.  One  of  these  confed- 
erations was  the  ^tolian  league  in  central  Greece.  This  had 
existed  from  very  early  times  in  the  remote  district  of  ^tolia, 
as  a  union  of  mountain  tribes,  banded  together  for  mutual 
protection  and  common  plunder.  The  Greeks  generally  had 
regarded  these  tribes  as  scarcely  civilized;  but  they  had 
obtained  a  reputation  for  valor  by  their  aid  in  defending 
Greece  at  the  time  of  the  great  Gallic  invasion  (280  b.c). 
They  had  a  common  federal  government,  consisting  of  a  gen- 


336 


THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 


eral,  a  council,  and  a  popular  assembly.  The  league  gradually 
extended  its  power  so  as  to  include  Locris,  Phocis,  Boeotia, 
and  parts  of  Thessaly,  the   island   of   Cephallenia,  and   also 

Elis  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. The  jEtolians 
did  not  possess  a  high 
reputation  for  honor ; 
and  Polyb'ius  says 
that  "  they  were  dan- 
gerous alike  to  friend 
and  to  foe." 

The  Achaean  League 
in  the  Peloponnesus.  — 
A  body  quite  similar 
to  the  ^tolian  league 
in  its  organization, 
but  far  superior  in  its 
character,  was  the 
Achaean  league,  which 
comprised  most  of  the 
states  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. From  very 
ancient  times  there 
had  existed  in  Acliaia 
a  union  of  twelve  cities.  They  had  always  shown  a  peaceful 
disposition,  and  had  hitherto  kept  aloof  from  the  wars  of  their 
neighbors.  The  Macedonian  kings  had  found  little  difficulty 
in  dissolving  this  league,  and  in  placing  over  its  towns  military 
garrisons.  But  about  the  time  of  the  Gallic  invasion,  the  cities 
began  to  draw  together  again.  They  drove  out  the  foreign  gar- 
risons, and  the  league  was  reestablished  to  maintain  the  liberties 
of  Greece  against  the  encroachments  of  Macedonian  kings. 

Extension  of  the  Achaean  League  by  Aratus.  —  The  real  power 
and  greatness  of  the  Achgean  league  were  due  to  the  famous 
leader  Ara'tus,  who  for  a  time  aj^peared  as  the  deliverer  of 
Greece  from  Macedonian  rule.     The  first  work  of  Aratus  was 


ThB   ^TOLIAN  and  ACHiEAN  LEAGUES, 
ABOUT  229  B.C. 


MACEDONIA   AND   THE   GREEK   FEDERATIONS        337 

to  liberate  his  own  native  city,  Sicyon,  from  its  tyrant.  He 
then  induced  the  league  to  accept  this  city  as  one  of  its 
members.  He  was  himself  elected  as  general  of  the  league. 
He  then  drove  the  Macedonian  garrison  from  Corinth,  and 
brought  that  city  also  within  the  union.  Megara  followed ; 
and  there  was  a  general  movement  among  the  Peloponnesian 
towns  to  join  the  league.  In  a  few  years  (229  b.c.)  the  whole 
Peloponnesus,  except  Laconia  and  Elis,  was  combined  in  a 
single  federal  state  —  the  most  advanced  political  organiza- 
tion that  had  ever  existed  in  Greece. 

Constitution  of   the  Achaean  League.  —  This   league   is   often 
referred  to  as  the  most  striking  example  of  a  federal  republic 
existing  in  the  ancient  world ;  and  we  should  therefore  notice 
its  principal  features.      In  the  firs:^  place,  each  city  retained       T~ 
its  eo|uality  and  independence  —  having  its  own  government,  S  r/^  f^ 
electing  its  own  officers,  and  managing  its  own  local  affairs. 
In   the   next   place,  the  general    powers  of  the   league   were     -27- 
vested  in  a  central  or  federal  government.     This  consisted  of    fco^ 
(1)  a  general  (or  president),  and  a  council  or  cabinet  of  ten,  p^^l 
persons  who  exercised  administrative  powers  ;    (2)    a   boule,    ^^^,a 
or  senate,  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  persons,  which         ('  * 
prepared   measures   for   the   assembly   and    managed   foreign^  Sv 
affairs  ;   and  (3)  an  assembly  of  the  whole  people,  in  which       ' ' 
the  citizens  of  each  city  possessed  one  vote.      The  assembly  9  ^  ^  , 
passed  all  federal  laws,  and  elected  all   federal  officers.     As'';;." 
the  federal  assembly  was  not   a   representative  body,  and  aS(^ 
all  the  citizens  would  not  be  disposed  to  attend  its  meeting,.; 
there  was  a  tendency  for  the  league,  although  democratic  in  /?  . 
theory,  to  become  aristocratic  in  fact,  and  also  for  the  general   . 
to  exercise  a  gi-eat  influence  in  shaping  its  policy.  ^ ' 

III.     The  Working  of  the  Leagues 

Friendly  Relations  with  Rome.  —  Nearly  the  whole  of  Greece 
was  now  organized  into  these  two  federal  states.  If  they 
could  have  united  in  the  defense  of  their  common   liberties, 


338  THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

they  might  perhaps  have  been  able  to  throw  off  the  Mace- 
donian yoke.  An  event  occurred  which  seemed  favorable  to 
such  a  union.  This  was  the  friendly  alliance  which  they 
established  with  Kome,  the  new  power  that  was  growing  up 
in  the  West.  The  Eomans  were  annoyed  by  depredations 
made  upon  their  commerce  by  the  Illyrian  pirates.  These 
pirates  were  also  attacking  the  commerce  of  the  Greek 
cities.  The  interests  of  Kome  and  Greece  seemed  for  the 
time  to  be  at  one.  Both  leagues  joined  with  Rome  in  destroy- 
ing these  common  enemies  (229  b.c.)  ;  and  in  return  for  this 
aid  the  Romans  sent  legates  to  the  ^tolians,  and  the  Achseans, 
and  even  to  Athens,  to  assure  them  that  she  was  the  natural 
ally  and  protector  of  the  Greek  states.  But  this  common 
friendship  for  Rome  was  unfortunately  not  sufficient  to  allay 
the  spirit  of  rivalry  among  the  cities  themselves,  or  to  pre- 
vent the  continued  interference  of  the  Macedonian  king. 

The  Achaean  League  and  Sparta.  —  The  only  state  of  the 
Peloponnesus  which  was  now  acting  alone  was  Sparta.  Once 
the  head  of  the  Peloponnesian  confederacy,  Sparta  was  now 
envious  of  the  growing  influence  of  the  Achaeans.  She  was 
herself  trying  to  recover  some  of  her  ancient  prestige.  She 
had  reformed  and  strengthened  her  decaying  institutions 
through  the  eiforts  of  her  two  energetic  kings,  Agis  III.  and 
Cleomenes  III.  Cleomenes  believed  that  the  interests  of 
Sparta  required  the  breaking  up  of  the  Achaean  league.  He 
appealed  to  the  ^tolians,  and  with  their  aid  waged  a  success- 
ful war  against  the  Achseans.  The  cause  of  the  Achseans 
seemed  about  to  be  lost,  when  their  general  Aratus  felt  obliged 
to  appeal  to  Macedonia  for  aid.  The  Macedonian  king,  An- 
tigonus,  was  quite  willing  to  lend  a  helping  hand,  since  he 
saw  an  opportunity  to  strengthen  his  own  authority  in  Greece. 
He  invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  defeated  Cleomenes  in  the 
battle  of  Sella'sia  (221  b.c),  and  forced  Sparta  into  submis- 
sion. But  the  most  unwelcome  result  of  this  so-called 
"  Cleomenic  war "  was  its  effect  upon  the  Achaean  league. 
The  league  was  originally  organized  to  repel   the   power   of 


MACEDONIA   AND   THE   GREEK   FEDERATIONS        339 

Macedonia;  but  now,  by  accepting  the  assistance  of  Mace- 
donia, it  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  Macedonian  authority. 
Conflict  between  the  Leagues  (220-217  b.c).  —  By  the  defeat 
of  Sparta  and  the  submission  of  the  Achseans,  the  ^tolians 
were  left  the  strongest  independent  power  in  Hellas.  It 
was  now  their  turn  to  make  an  attempt  to  establish  their 
supremacy.  The  time  seemed  especially  favorable  on  account 
of  the  recent  death  of  the  warlike  king, 
Antigonus,  and  the  accession  of  the  young 
Philip  V.  to  the  Macedonian  throne.  The 
^tolians  accordingly  invaded  the  Pelopon- 
nesus and  made  war  upon  the  Achseans. 
They  obtained  the  assistance  of  Sparta, 
still  smarting  under  her  recent  defeat.  In 
this  war  between  the  leagues,  —  called  the 
"Social   w^ar,"  —  the    young    Macedonian  Philip  v. 

king  felt  bound  to  protect  his  Achaean  allies.  He  entered 
upon  a  series  of  vigorous  campaigns  by  land  and  sea  against 
the  ^tolians.  He  was  everywhere  successful,  ^tolia  and 
the  whole  of  Greece  seemed  on  the  point  of  being  reduced 
to  the  condition  of  a  Macedonian  province,  when  Philip 
received  the  news  that  the  Romans  had  been  defeated  in  a 
great  battle  by  Han'nibal.  He  determined  to  make  peace  with 
the  Greeks,  and  to  join  Hannibal  against  the  Romans.  By  the 
terms  of  this  peace  —  the  Peace  of  Naupactus  (217  b.c), — 
the  two  leagues  were  compelled  to  lay  down  their  arms  and  to 
return  to  the  condition  in  which  they  were  at  the  beginning  of 
the  war  —  that  is,  the  Achseans  were  still  to  recognize  the  au- 
thority of  the  king;  the  Spartans  were  to  withdraw  into  their 
own  territory  of  Laconia ;  and  the  ^tolians  were  to  retain  their 
independence. 

SELECTIONS   FOR   READING 

Timayenis,  Vol.  II.,  "  ^tolian  and  Achaean  Leagues"  (11).^ 

Smith,  Ch.  46,  "  From  the  Battle  of  Ipsus  to  the  Conquest  of  Greece  "  (10). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


34r0  THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

Mahaffy,  Greek  Life,  Ch.  18,  "The  Crisis  of  Hellenism"  (17). 
Schuckburgh,  Ch.  22,  "^tolian  and  Achaean  Leagues"  (10). 
Plutarch,  "Aratus,"  "Agis,"  "Cleoraenes"  (13). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

Greek  Federalism.  —  Mahaffy,  Problems,  pp.  176-186  (12);  Green- 
idge,  Ch.  7  (20)  ;  Holm,  Vol.  IV.,  Index,  "Achaean  League,"  "^tolian 
League"  (11)  ;  Fowler,  Ch.  10  (20)  ;  Freeman,  Chs.  5-8  (20). 


CHAPTER   XXVIII 

THE   ABSORPTION   OF   HELLAS   BY   ROME 
I.    The  Absorptiox  of  Western  Hellas 

Rome  versus  Macedonia.  —  The  persistent  rivalry  between  the 
Greek  cities  rendered  them  incapable  of  uniting  in  a  common 
effort  to  maintain  their  freedom.  In  their  relations  with  Rome, 
it  is  true,  they  were  beginning  to  have  a  common  feeling  of 
friendship.  Biit  in  their  relations  to  Macedonia  they  seemed 
to  have  no  settled  and  common  policy  —  now  resisting  her  au- 
thority, and  now  courting  her  favor,  just  as  their  separate 
interests  seemed  to  require.  Each  state  regarded  its  own 
particular  interests  as  more  important  than  the  common  in- 
terests of  Greece.  With  such  a  lack  of  national  spirit,  it  is  quite 
evident  that  Greece  could  never  become  a  single  free  and  inde- 
pendent state.  She  must  either  remain  under  the  power  of 
Macedonia,  or  pass  under  the  authority  of  Rome.  And  when 
we  compare  the  relative  weakness  of  Macedonia  with  the  grow- 
ing strength  of  Rome,  it  is  not  difficult  for  us  to  see  which  of 
these  two  powers  was  destined  to  be  the  ruler  of  Greece. 

Absorption  of  Magna  Graecia.  —  At  the  time  that  Philip  V.  de- 
cided to  assist  Hannibal,  a  considerable  part  of  the  Greek  world 
had  already  been  absorbed  by  Rome.  We  may  look  back  for  a 
moment  and  see  how  Rome,  starting  out  as  a  little  town  on  the 


THE   ABSORPTION  OF   HELLAS   BY   ROME  341 

Tiber,  had  extended  her  dominion  over  western  Hellas,  and  had 
come  to  be  the  great  rival  of  Macedonia.  Many  of  the  Greek 
cities  in  Italy  had  sought  the  protection  of  Kome  against  the 
neighboring  barbarian  tribes.  In  this  way,  the  northern  cities 
of  Cumae  and  Neapolis  had  been  brought  under  her  authority  — 
and  also  many  southern  cities,  like  Psestum  (Posidonia),  Rhe- 
gium,  and  Thu'rii  (Sybaris).  (For  these  cities,  see  map,  page 
136.)  The  most  iruportant  Greek  city  in  southern  Italy  was 
Tarentum,  which,  in  a  quarrel  with  Rome,  called  in  the  aid  of 
Pyrrhus,  the  Molossian  king  of  Epirus.  But  with  the  defeat 
of  Pyrrhus,  all  the  cities  of  Magna  Grsecia  were  brought  under 
the  Roman  dominion. 

Absorption  of  Sicily.  —  Rome  then  entered  Sicily,  professedly 
to  protect  the  city  of  Messana  from  the  Syracusans,  but  really 
to  oppose  the  growing  power  of  Carthage.  Carthage  had  hith- 
erto, as  we  have  seen,  been  opposed  by  the  powerful  rulers  of 
Syracuse,  such  as  Dionysius  the  Elder,  and  Timoleon  (pages  285, 
286).  After  them  Agath'ocles,  one  of  the  boldest  adventurers 
of  antiquity,  made  himself  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  and  attempted 
to  drive  the  Carthaginians  from  the  island  ;  and  he  was,  in  fact, 
the  first  of  European  soldiers  "  to  carry  the  war  into  Africa." 
But  in  spite  of  his  courageous  efforts,  Carthage  still  retained 
her  hold  upon  the  western  towns  of  Sicily.  It  remained  for 
the  Romans,  after  a  tedious  war  of  twenty-three  years,  —  the 
first  Punic  war,  —  to  accomplish  what  others  had  failed  to  do. 
The  Carthaginians  were  driven  from  the  island,  and  Sicily  was 
made  a  Roman  province.  It  was  not  long  before  all  the  Greek 
cities  of  the  west  (including  Massilia  in  Gaul)  were  gathered 
into  the  Roman  state. 

II.    The  Liberation  of  Greece  from  Macedonia 

Renewed  Friendship  between  Greece  and  Rome.  —  Rome  had 
gained  the  reputation  of  being  the  enemy  of  the  greater  powers, 
and  the  friend  of  the  weaker  states.  The  greater  powers  hence 
sought  her  destruction  J  and  the  weaker  ones  sought  her  pro- 


842  THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

tection.  When,  now,  the  great  Carthaginian  soldier,  Hannibal, 
invaded  Italy  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  Rome,  and  when 
the  Macedonian  king,  Philip  V.,  had  decided  to  help  him,  Rome 
entered  once  more  into  friendly  relations  with  the  Greek  cities, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  king  from  invading  Italy.  To  weaken 
the  power  of  Philip,  she  formed  an  alliance  with  the  ^tolians. 
At  the  same  time  Sparta,  Messenia,  and  Elis  declared  themselves 
to  be  the  "  friends  of  Rome."  As  the  Greek  cities  had  before 
united  with  Rome  against  the  Illyrian  pirates,  so  they  now  felt 
bound  to  Rome  by  a  common  hatred  toward  Macedonia.  The 
triumph  for  Rome,  it  seemed,  would  be  a  triumph  for  Greece. 

Revival  of  the  Achaeans  under  Philopoemen.  —  The  Achseans 
now  thought  they  saw  an  opportunity  to  throw  off  the  authority 
of  the  Macedonian  king  and  to  recover  their  lost  power  in 
the  Peloponnesus.  They  were  led  in  this  movement  by  their 
greatest  statesman,  Philopce'men,  who  has  been  called  "the 
last  of  the  Greeks."  This  man  had  already  proved  him- 
self to  be  an  able  soldier  in  the  "  Cleomenic  war,"  and  now 
he  was  appointed  general  of  the  Achaean  league.  He  carried 
on  a  successful  war  against  Sparta,  and  compelled  that  city 
to  join  the  league.  Elis  also  now  forsook  the  ^tolians,  and 
joined  the  Achaeans,  so  that  the  whole  Peloponnesus  was  for 
the  first  time  united  in  one  federal  state.  The  Greek  cities 
were  inspired  once  more  with  the  hope  of  freedom ;  and  at 
the  next  Nemean  festival  Philopoemen  was  hailed  as  the 
"liberator  of  his  country." 

Overthrow  of  the  Macedonian  Supremacy.  —  But  whatever  the 
Greeks  might  have  hoped,  the  Macedonian  king  was  not  yet 
disposed  to  give  up  his  claims  as  the  rightful  ruler  of  Hellas. 
He  still  possessed  three  strong  garrisons,  by  which  he  believed 
he  could  hold  the  country  in  subjection,  and  which  he  styled 
"  the  fetters  of  Greece."  One  of  these  "  fetters  "  was  at  Deme'- 
trias  in  Thessaly ;  another  at  Chalcis  in  Euboea;  and  the  third 
at  Acrocorin'thus,  a  lofty  citadel  overlooking  the  walls  of 
Corinth.  The  king  had  also  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Athens, 
which  was  not  a  member  of  either  league.     The  time  had  now 


THE   ABSORPTION  OF   HELLAS   BY   ROME  343 

come  for  Kome  not  only  to  punish  Philip  for  taking  the  side 
of  her  arch  enemy,  Hannibal,  but  also  to  maintain  her  posi- 
tion as  the  defender  of  the  Greek  cities.  In  the  war  which 
followed  —  the  second  Macedonian  war  (200-197  b.c.)  — 
the  siege  of  Athens  was  raised  by  a  Roman  fleet ;  the  Achaean 
league  declared  for  Rome ;  and  the  Macedonian  army  was 
defeated  by  the  Roman  general  Flamini'nus,  at  Cynosceph'alse 
in  Thessaly  (197  b.c).  This  destroyed  the  last  vestige  of 
Macedonian  authority  in  Greece. 

The  Liberation  of  Greece.  —  Greece  was  now  freed  from  Mace- 
donia; but  her  liberties  were  in  the  hands  of  her  deliverer, 
Rome.  It  was  a  question  whether  the  Greek  cities  were 
really  to  be  free,  or  whether  they  had  simply  exchanged  one 
master  for  another.  This  question  was  settled  when  Flamini- 
nus  at  the  next  Isthmian  festival  proclaimed  "the  liberation 
of  Greece"  (196  b.c).  In  the  name  of  Rome  he  declared  the 
states  to  be  free  and  independent;  that  the  ^tolian  and 
Achaean  leagues  should  retain  their  federal  constitutions ;  that 
only  those  fortresses  which  had  been  garrisoned  by  Philip,  in- 
cluding the  "'  three  fetters,"  should  be  held  by  Rome.  But  on 
the  complaint  of  the  ^tolians,  even  these  garrisons  were  with- 
drawn (194  B.C.). 

III.    The  Absorptiox  of  Macedonia  and  Greece 

Revolt  of  the  -^tolians.  —  If  the  public  spirit  of  the  Greeks 
had  been  equal  to  the  generosity  of  the  Romans,  there  seems 
to  be  no  reason  why  the  freedom  proclaimed  by  Flamininus 
might  not  have  been  maintained.  Greece  had  been  freed  from 
the  domineering  policy  of  Philip  V.,  and  Rome  had  shown  by 
her  acts  thus  far  no  disposition  to  reestablish  a  similar  policy. 
The  settlement  of  Greece  had,  in  the  main,  been  satisfactory 
to  all  parties,  except  to  the  ^tolians  and  Sparta.  The  ^toli- 
ans  were  especially  irritated  because  certain  outlying  cities, 
which  Rome  had  freed,  had  not  been  given  up  to  them. 
Inspired  by  such  a  selfish  spirit,  they  determined  to  look  about 


344 


THE   SPREAD   OF    HELLENISM 


for  allies  and  to  make  war  upon  Rome.  They  appealed  to 
Sparta,  to  Philip,  and  to  Antiochus  III.,  king  of  Syria.  The 
Syrian  king  was  the  only  one  to  resx)ond  to  this  appeal.  He 
invaded  Greece,  but  was  soon  driven  out  by  the  Roman  armies. 


Antiochus  III.  (Coin) 

The  ^tolians  continued  the  war,  but  were  soon  brought  to 
terms.  They  were  now  treated  with  an  iron  hand.  They 
were  obliged  to  give  up  the  freedom  which  they  had  abused, 
and  to  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Rome  (189  b.c). 

Reduction  of  Macedonia.  —  The  crushing  of  the  ^tolian  league 
naturally  led  the  Macedonian  king  to  believe  that  the  real  policy 
of  Rome  was  not  that  of  a  liberator,  but  that  of  a  conqueror. 
Philip,  therefore,  made  preparations  to  meet  Rome  in  the  field, 
and  these  preparations  were  continued  after  his  death  by  his 
son  and  successor,  Perseus.  The  new 
king  not  only  prepared  for  an  open  war, 
but  stirred  up  among  the  Greek  cities  a 
spirit  of  revolt  against  Rome  —  among 
the  J^tolian  cities,  which  had  just  been 
conquered,  and  also  among  the  Achsean 
cities,  which  held  their  liberties  under  the 
guarantee  of  Rome.  The  war  came ;  Mace- 
donia was  conquered  at  the  battle  of 
Pydna  (168  b.c;  map,  page  300).  A  thousand  Achaean  citizens 
who  had  been  active  in  opposing  the  Roman  cause,  —  among 
whom  was  the  historian  Polybius,  —  were  transported  as  cap- 
tives to  Italy.     Macedonia  was  now  compelled  to  recognize  the 


Perseus 


THE   ABSORPTION   OF   HELLAS   BY   ROME  345 

Roman  supremacy;  and  in  a  few  years  (146  b.c.)  the  whole 
country  was  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  Roman  province  under  a 
Roman  governor. 

Reduction  of  the  Achaean  League.  —  The  last  independent  state 
of  any  importance  now  remaining  in  Greece  was  the  Achaean 
league.  If  Rome  had  hitherto  felt  under  obligation  to  main- 
tain the  freedom  of  this  league,  she  now  felt  relieved  of  this 
obligation  on  account  of  what  seemed  to  be  the  treachery  of 
the  Achseans  themselves,  during  the  late  Macedonian  war.  But 
she  still  showed  a  sort  of  generosity  by  permitting  the  return 
of  the  Achaean  captives.  These  captives,  however,  still  re- 
tained their  hostile  feeling  toward  Rome.  But  the  direct  cause 
of  Rome's  intervention  in  the  affairs  of  the  Peloponnesus  was 
a  quarrel  between  the  Achaean  league  and  Sparta  on  a  question 
of  boundaries.  Sparta  appealed  to  Rome,  and  a  commission 
was  sent  to  Greece  to  settle  the  dispute.  The  award  of  the 
commission  was  rejected  by  the  Achaeans  ;  and  the  spirit  of  re- 
volt was  aroused,  especially  in  Corinth.  The  Roman  armies 
were  sent  to  enforce  the  award,  and  to  reduce  the  rebellious 
cities.  Corinth  was  destroyed  (146  b.c);  the  Achaean  cities 
were  punished,  and  all  Greece  came  under  the  Roman  authority. 
A  few  cities  like  Athens,  Sparta,  and  Sicyon  were  allowed  to  re- 
tain their  freedom;  while  the  rest  of  Greece  was  placed  under 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  governor  of  Macedonia  (146  e.g.). 

By  the  steps  which  we  have  thus  briefly  traced  the  whole 
Hellenic  world  was  absorbed  into  the  Roman  republic.  And  we 
might  also  add  that,  in  the  process  of  time,  the  chief  Hellen- 
istic countries  of  the  East  —  Pergamum,  Syria,  and  Egypt  — 
were  also  brought  under  the  Roman  authority ;  so  that  Rome 
became  at  last  the  universal  successor  to  the  civilization  of 
Greece. 

SELECTIONS  FOR  READING 

Schuckburgh,  Ch.  24,  "  Roman  Conquest  of  Greece  "  (10). i 
Timayenis,  Vol.  LL,  Part  IX.,  Ch.  10,  "The  Roman  Conquest"  (11). 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


346  THE    SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

Holm,  Vol.  IV.,  Ch.  15,  "  Greece  during  the  Roman  Period  "  (11). 
Mahaffy,    Problems,   Ch.    10,  "The  Romans  in  Greece"    (12);    Greek 
Life,   Ch.   19,   "Gradual  Subjection  of   Hellenism  to  Rome"  (17). 
Freeman,  Essay  VI.,  "  Greece  during  the  Macedonian  Period  "  (12). 
Plutarch,  "  Philopoemen  "  (13). 

SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  Political  Success  and  Failure  of  Greece.  —  Fowler,  Ch.  11 
(20)  ;  Greenidge,  Ch.  8  (20)  ;  Coulanges,  Bk.  V.  (20)  ;  Freeman,  Essay 
IV.,  "  The  Athenian  Democracy"  (12). 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

GREEK  CULTURE  AND  THE  WESTERN  WORLD 
I.   Greek  Culture, after  the  Komax  Conquest 

Continuance  of  Greek  Culture.  —  We  have  closed  the  political 
history  of  Greece  with  the  fall  of  Corinth  (146  B.C.)  ;  but  when 
we  consider  the  influence  of  Greece  upon  the  world,  we  are 
obliged  to  say  that  her  intellectual  history  did  not  cease  at  that 
time.  The  great  significance  of  Greece,  like  that  of  any  other 
country,  is  to  be  judged  by  those  elements  of  its  life  which  it  has 
bequeathed  to  other  peoples.  The  most  permanent  features  of 
Greek  civilization,  as  we  have  been  led  to  believe,  were  not  so 
much  her  political  institutions  as  her  intellectual  and  aesthetic 
culture.  We  have  seen  that  when  Greece  fell  uuder  the  power 
of  Macedonia,  her  spirit  gave  a  new  life  to  the  Eastern  world. 
It  is  just  as  true  that  when  she  came  under  the  power  of  Rome, 
her  culture  became  a  valuable  heritage  to  the  Western  world. 
To  get  some  idea  of  the  historical  importance  of  Greece,  we 
should  take  at  least  a  brief  survey  of  her  continued  influence 
after  she  lost  her  political  independence. 

Later  Seats  of  Greek  Learning.  —  After  the  "fall  of  Greece" 
there  still  remained  in  the  Greek  world  certain  centers  of  learn- 


GREEK   CULTURE   AND  THE   WESTERN   WORLD       347 

ing  where  the  Greek  culture  was  made  the  subject-matter  of 
education.  Athens  itself  remained  an  educational  center, 
where  were  still  taught  the  principles  of  Greek  rhetoric,  ora- 
tory, and  philosophy.  The  students  of  other  cities  and 
countries  flocked  to  Athens,  as  to  a  university,  to  pursue  the 
branches  which  were  considered  necessary  for  a  higher  liberal 
culture.  The  great  capitals  of  the  East  —  Pergamum,  Ehodes, 
Antioch,  and  Alexandria — also  remained  the  centers  of  Greek 
intellectual  life,  where  the  Greek  language,  philosophy,  and 
science  retained  the  highest  place  in  the  course  of  education. 
In  these  centers  of  learning  the  old  Greek  thought  and  spirit 
were  kept  alive  and  made  influential. 

Later  Greek  Writings.  —  The  Greek  language  continued  to  be 
used  in  Hellas  and  in  the  Hellenistic  countries  as  the  lan- 
guage of  the  best  literature.  There  were  many  famous  Greek 
writers  who  flourished  after  the  fall  of  the  Greek  states. 
Polybius,  an  Achaean,  wrote  a  general  history  in  forty  books 
(of  which  five  remain  to  us  entire) ;  and  this  work  is  one  of 
our  chief  authorities  for  the  period  from  the  second  Punic 
war  to  the  destruction  of  Corinth.  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
wrote  a  work  on  Roman  antiquities,  extending  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  first  Punic  war.  Diodo'rus  of  Sicily  composed 
a  universal  history  in  forty  books.  Plutarch,  a  Boeotian, 
has  given  us  fascinating  biographies  of  important  Greek  and 
Roman  characters.  Ar'rian,  a  native  of  Bithynia,  wrote  the 
best  account  which  we  have  of  the  expeditions  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  Lu'cian,  who  was  born  on  the  banks  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, but  who  spent  much  time  in  delivering  lectures  in  the 
cities  of  Syria,  Greece,  and  Italy,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  Greek  satirists. 

Spread  of  Hellenism  to  the  West.  —  But  the  continuance  of 
Greek  culture  was  not  restricted  to  the  land  of  its  birth,  or  to 
the  countries  of  the  East.  In  many  respects  its  most  impor- 
tant triumph  was  its  adoption  by  Rome.  This  seems  to  us  the 
more  remarkable  when  we  compare  its  entrance  into  Italy 
after  the  fall  of  Hellas  with  its  previous  entrance  into  Asia 
morey's  greek  hist. — 21 


348  THE  SPREAD  OP  HELLENISM 

after  the  victories  of  Alexander.  We  might  say  that  it  was  borne 
into  Asia  on  the  chariot  of  a  conqueror,  while  it  was  brought 
into  Italy  in  the  chains  of  a  captive.  The  Greeks  who  settled 
in  the  East  went  there  as  free  men  and  citizens;  but  the 
Greeks  who  settled  in  the  West  came  as  subjects  and  prisoners 
of  war.  And  so  the  words  of  the  Roman  poet  are  very  apt 
when  he  describes  the  influence  of  Greece  upon  Eome  by  say- 
ing, "  The  conquered  led  captive  the  conqueror." 

As  the  Greeks  were  first  brought  to  Kome  as  captives  in  war, 
so  the  beautiful  works  of  Greek  art  were  carried  thither  as  the 
spoils  of  war.  It  is  said  that  one  Roman  general,  ^mil'ius 
Paullus,  after  the  battle  of  Pydna,  "transported  his  rich 
booty  of  paintings  and  statues — among  which  was  an  Athena 
by  Phidias  —  in  two  hundred  and  fifty  wagons  through  the 
streets  of  Rome  "  (Perry).  With  the  fall  of  Corinth  all  its 
rich  treasures  were  carried  to  Italy  to  adorn  the  Roman  capital. 
But  these  works  of  art,  plundered  as  they  were  from  Greek 
cities,  served  to  refine  and  civilize  the  rude  people  on  the 
Tiber,  and  to  extend  the  influence  of  Greece  throughout  western 
Europe. 

Greek  Elements  in  Roman  Culture.  —  We  have  not  to  do  at 
present  with  the  distinctive  features  of  Roman  civilization. 
But  we  should  have  impressed  upon  our  minds  the  fact  that 
the  new  world  culture  which  sprang  up  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  after  the  Roman  conquest,  was  made  up 
largely  of  Greek  elements.  Whatever  genius  the  Romans  may 
have  shown  in  the  development  of  government  and  law,  their 
art  and  literature  and  philosophy  were  derived  in  great  part 
from  Greek  sources.  While  their  architecture  revealed  the 
power  and  dignity  of  the  Roman  character,  "  whatever  was 
done  in  the  way  of  design,  in  the  way  of  adding  beauty  to 
strength,  was  done  wholly  under  the  advice  and  direction  of  the 
Greeks"  (MahafPy).  In  the  poetry  of  Rome  we  recognize  the 
Greek  muse  speaking  in  the  Latin  tongue.  The  Roman  phi- 
losophers also  expounded  anew  the  systems  of  Zeno  and 
Epicurus.    Even  in  the  Roman  civil  law  —  the  highest  product 


GREEK  CULTURE   AND  THE;   WESTERN   WORLD       349 

of  the  Eoman  mind  —  we  may  see  the  influ-ence  of  the  Stoic 
ideas  of  justice  and  the  "law  of  nature."  Every  step  in  the 
expansion  of  the  Roman  empire  afforded  a  new  opportunity 
either  for  the  absorption  or  for  the  diffusion  of  the  thought 
and  ideals  of  Greece. 


II.   Transmission  of  Greek  Culture  to  Modern  Times 

Its  Preservation  in  the  Byzantine  Empire.  —  The  diffusion  of 
Greek  culture  throughout  the  countries  of  the  old  world  —  in 
Asia,  in  Africa,  and  in  Europe  —  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
facts  of  ancient  history.  But  the  wonderful  vitality  of  Greek 
thought  and  the  permanent  influence  of  Greek  ideals  are  e\:en 
more  strongly  evident  in  the  transmission  of  this  culture  to 
modern  times.  In  order  to  understand  how  the  Hellenism  of 
the  ancient  world  has  become  a  part  of  the  culture  of  our 
modern  Western  world,  we  should  notice  the  channels  through 
which  the  old  Greek  ideas  have  come  down  to  us.  One  of 
these  means  of  communication  was  through  its  preservation 
in  the  Byzantine  empire  —  that  is,  that  part  of  the  Roman 
empire  which  remained  in  the  East,  after  the  western  part  was 
destroyed  by  the  German  barbarians.  The  countries  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  continued  to  be  bound  together  by  a 
common  government  at  Byzantium,  which  was  now  called 
Constantinople.  Here  the  Greek  language  was  still  spoken. 
Here  works  of  Greek  literature  continued  to  be  written.  The 
old  Attic  writers  were  still  studied,  and  the  manuscripts  of  the 
ancient  authors  were  preserved  in  the  schools  of  learning  and 
in  the  monasteries.  In  this  way  the  Hellenic  spirit  was  kept 
alive  in  eastern  Europe  until  the  modern  period. 

Its  Absorption  by  the  Arabians.  —  Another  way  in  which 
the  Greek  culture  was  preserved  and  transmitted  to  modern 
times  was  through  the  Arabian  conquests.  When  the  Eastern 
or  Byzantine  empire  declined  in  power,  the  Arabians  —  who  had 
accepted  the  religion  of  Mohammed  and  whom  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  call  the  "  Saracens  "  —  became  the  successors  of  the 


350  THE   SPREAD   OF  HELLENISM 

Grseco-E-oman  civilization  in  western  Asia  and  Egypt.  This 
barbarous  people  became  refined  and  civilized  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Hellenistic  culture  of  the  East.  They  became 
the  students  of  Greek  science  and  Greek  philosophy,  especially 
that  of  Aristotle.  They  became  imbued  with  the  love  of 
learning,  and  their  capitals  were  filled  with  collections  of 
Greek  manuscripts.  When  they  extended  their  conquests  to 
the  west,  by  way  of  northern  Africa,  into  Spain  and  southern 
Italy,  they  brought  with  them  into  western  Europe  the 
remains  of  the  old  Greek  learning,  which  they  themselves  had 
gathered  up  in  Syria  and  Egypt. 

Its  Revival  in  the  Renaissance.  —  But  the  most  marked 
revival  of  Greek  culture  in  modern  Europe  was  due  not  to 
this  indirect  influence  exercised  by  the  Arabians ;  it  was  due, 
rather,  to  the  direct  influence  exercised  by  Greek  scholars, 
who  migrated  to  the  West  from  the  declining  cities  of  the  By- 
zantine empire.  While  the  old  government  at  Constantinople 
was  falling  into  weakness  and  decay,  new  nations  were  spring- 
ing into  life  in  western  Europe,  —  in  Italy,  Spain,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  England.  And  in  these  newly  formed  countries  of 
modern  Europe  the  old  culture  of  Greece  had  a  new  birth  — 
a  renaissance.  When  finally  the  Turks  overran  the  East  and 
captured  Constantinople  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  devotees 
of  Greek  learning  found  a  refuge  in  Italy.  The  study  of  the 
Greek  language  and  of  Greek  culture  produced  a  new  intellec- 
tual life,  not  only  in  Italy,  but  in  the  other  countries  of  the 
West.  The  same  kind  of  regenerating  influence  which  the 
Hellenic  culture  had  in  earlier  times  exercised  upon  the  people 
of  the  Orient,  upon  the  Romans,  and  upon  the  Arabians,  was 
now  felt  by  the  peoples  of  modern  Europe.  Greek  art,  litera- 
ture, philosophy,  and  science  found  a  new  and  genial  home 
in  the  West,  and  gave  a  strong  impulse  in  the  direction  of  a 
more  refined  and  higher  intellectual  life. 

•  Its  Influence  in  Modern  Education.  —  The  influence  of  Greek 
culture  has  been  preserved  in  modern  times  by  being  incor- 
porated in  our  higher  educational  system.     The  study  of  the 


GREEK  CULTURE  AND   THE  WESTERN  WORLD       351 

Greek  language,  with  its  capacity  for  fine  distinctions,  for 
clear  and  graceful  expression,  has  given  to  the  modern  mind 
something  of  the  acuteness  and  refinement  of  the  Greeks. 
We  still  study  the  works  of  Homer  as  the  great  masterpieces 
of  epic  poetry.  We  still  study  the  tragedies  of  ^schylus 
and  Sophocles  as  lofty  specimens  of  the  dramatic  art ;  and  we 
still  read  the  pages  of  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  and  Xenophon 
as  models  of  historical  composition.  Modern  ideas  have  thus 
been  broadened  and  made  more  liberal  through  the  influence 
of  Greek  studies. 


III.   Greek  Elements  in  Modern  Civilization 

Greek  Political  Ideas. — Through  the  various  ways  that  we 
have  noticed,  the  Hellenic  spirit  has  become  a  part  of  our  mod- 
ern life.  We  should  indeed  study  the  history  and  civilization 
of  the  ancient  Greeks  to  little  purpose  if  we  failed  to  recog- 
nize our  own  indebtedness  to  this  remarkable  people.  While 
it  may  be  difficult  for  us  to  separate  from  one  another  all  the 
elements  which  make  up  the  complex  culture  of  modern  times, 
we  may  yet  see  in  our  political  and  intellectual  life  many  fear 
tures  derived  from  the  Greeks.  Our  ideas  of  political  liberty, 
for  example,  and  of  the  state  as  an  organization  of  free  citi- 
zens, have  their  origin  to  a  large  extent  in  the  city  state  of 
Greece.  It  is  true  that  our  modern  state  extends  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  city ;  but  it  is  also  true  that  it  is,  like  the  Greek 
city  state,  an  organization  of  free  citizens  ;  and  in  this  larger 
modern  state,  the  city  still  retains,  like  the  Greek  city,  a  cer- 
tain right  of  local  self-government.  Although  we  may  have 
received  this  idea  of  municipal  government  more  directly 
from  Kome,  it  no  doubt  came  originally  from  Greece.  It 
would  be  difficult  for  us  to  estimate  how  much  we  are  indebted 
for  our  free  institutions  to  the  spirit  of  liberty  which  inspired 
the  people  of  Hellas. 

Greek  Science  and  Philosophy.  —  Moreover,  our  scientific  and 
philosophical  ideas  have  in  them  many  elements  which  we  have 


352  THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 

indirectly  derived  from  the  Greeks.  Our  geometry  is  mainly 
the  geometry  of  Euclid.  Our  geography  is  founded  in  great 
part  upon  that  of  the  Alexandrian  scientists.  It  is  a  question 
whether  America  would  have  been  discovered  when  it  was, 
had  not  Columbus  become  acquainted  with  the  later  Greek 
ideas  regarding  the  shape  of  the  earth. ^  Our  sciences  of  gram- 
mar, of  logic,  of  rhetoric,  are  also  drawn  from  the  storehouse 
of  Greek  learning.  So,  also,  our  philosophical  theories  of  man 
and  of  nature  are  largely  influenced  by  the  writings  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  and  other  Greek  thinkers. 

Greek  Spirit  in  Literature.  —  We  may  perceive  still  further 
in  our  best  literature  the  presence  of  the  Hellenic  spirit.  The 
most  cultivated  of  modern  writers  have  looked  upon  the  litera- 
ture of  Greece,  as  furnishing  the  highest  models  of  a  pure 
literary  style.  The  writings  produced  on  the  soil  of  Ionia  and 
Attica  have  given  an  inspiration  to  the  modern  poet,  orator, 
and  historian.  The  "  classics  "  of  the  modern  world  have  thus 
an  affinity  with  the  classical  works  of  Greece,  —  marked  as  they 
are  by  simplicity  of  style,  clearness  of  thought,  and  ease  of 
expression. 

Greek  Art  and  Taste.  —  The  modern  world  is  finally  indebted 
largely  to  the  Greeks  for  some  of  the  best  features  of  its  art 
—  especially  in  architecture  and  sculpture.  This  influence  is 
seen,  not  only  in  modern  imitations  of  Greek  temples  and 
statues,  but  especially  in  those  principles  of  taste  which  are 
based  upon  the  perception  of  the  highest  beauty.  The  Greek 
taste  was  opposed  to  all  that  is  artificial  and  meretricious.  It 
was  opposed  alike  to  barbarian  crudeness  and  Oriental  excess. 
The  influence  of  this  classic  love  of  simplicity,  of  sincerity,  of 

1  On  this  interesting  subject,  see  Fiske,  Discovery  of  America,  Vol.  I., 
pp.  260-208,  354-.3H1;  Winsor,  Columbus,  pp.  107-109;  Hallam,  Literature 
of  Europe,  Vol.  I.,  p.  105;  Payne,  History  of  America,  pp.  22-72.  Al- 
though some  doubt  has  been  thrown  upon  the  genuiueness  of  the  "letter  of 
Toscanelli "  by  Vignaud  (in  his  Toscanelli  and  Columbus,  London  and  N.Y., 
1002),  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  advancicd  geographical  ideas  of  Europe, 
from  the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  century,  were  derived  from  Greek 
sources. 


GREEK   CULTURE   AND  THE   WESTERN    WORLD       353 

moderation,  is  seen  in  the  higher  forms  of  modern  art  —  even 
in  those  forms  which  do  not  strictly  follow  the  ancient  Greek 
models.  The  spirit  of  classic  art  has  thus  exercised  a  refin- 
ing influence  upon  the  modern  taste,  and  has  led  to  a  higher 
appreciation  of  the  union  of  truth  with  beauty. 

Civilizing  Influence  of  Greece.  —  As  we  look  back  over  the  his- 
tory of  Greece  and  its  influence  upon  the  world,  we  can  see  the 
important  place  which  it  has  occupied  in  the  growth  of  civili- 
zation. We  have  seen  Greece  at  first  the  heir  of  the  Orient,^ 
developing  an  early  culture  under  foreign  influences,  which 
soon  passed  away,  leaving  only  the  memories  and  monuments 
of  the  Mycensean  age.  We  have  seen  her  afterward  showing 
a  spirit  of  freedom  and  independence,  —  in  politics,  in  litera- 
ture, in  art,  in  philosophy,  —  breaking  away  from  the  servile 
spirit  and  despotic  authority  of  the  East,  and  developing  in  the 
age  of  Pericles  a  culture  far  superior  to  that  of  any  earlier 
people.  We  have  also  seen  her  in  her  political  decline  and 
fall,  still  maintaining  her  intellectual  supremacy  and  scatter- 
ing the  fruits  of  her  culture  into  every  part  of  the  world.  We 
have  seen  that  whatever  people  have  been  brought  into  contact 
with  her  spirit  have  received  a  new  intellectual  life.  W^e  must, 
therefore,  look  upon  the  influence  of  Greece  as  one  of  the  most 
powerful  factors  in  the  civilization  of  the  world.  Whatever 
flaws  we  may  find  in  the  old  Greek  character,  we  can  not  too 
highly  appreciate  that  peculiar  intellectual  and  aesthetic  type 
of  culture  which  forms  one  of  the  great  bequests  of  antiquity 
to  modern  times.  "  All  that  is  most  beautiful  and  most  in- 
structive in  Greek  achievement,"  says  Professor  Jebb,  "  is  our 
permanent  possession  ;  one  which  can  be  enjoyed  without  detri- 
ment to  those  other  studies  which  modern  life  demands ;  one 
which  no  lapse  of  time  can  make  obsolete,  and  which  no  multi- 
plication of  modern  interests  can  make  superfluous.  Each 
successive  generation  must  learn  from  ancient  Greece  that 
which  can  be  taught  by  her  alone  ;  and  to  assist,  however  little, 
in  the  transmission  of  her  message  is  the  best  reward  of  a 
student.^' 


354  THE   SPREAD   OF   HELLENISM 


SELECTIONS   FOR   READING 

Mahaffy,  Survey,  Ch.  10,  "Greek  Culture  under  the  Romans"  (10)  ;i 
Problems,  Ch.  10,  "The  Romans  in  Greece"  (12)  ;  Greek  Life,  Ch. 
23,  "Importation  of  Hellenism  to  Rome"  (17)  ;  Greek  AVorld  under 
Roman  Sway,  Ch.  5,  "General  Reaction  of  Hellenism  upon  Rome." 

Greenidge,  Ch.  8,  "  Hellenism  and  the  Fall  of  the  Greek  Constitu- 
tions" (20). 

Perry,  Ch.  48,  "  Migration  of  Greek  Art  to  Rome  "  (19). 

Felton,  Vol.  II.,  Fourth  Course,  Lect.  7,  "  Byzantine  Scholarship  "  (11). 

Symonds,  Ch.  12,  "The  Genius  of  Greek  Art  "  (23). 

Jebb,  Greek  Classical  Poetry,  Ch.  8,  "Permanent  Power  of  Greek 
Poetry"  (23). 

Butcher,  pp.  1-46,  "  What  We  Owe  to  the  Greeks  "  (12). 


SPECIAL  STUDY 

The  Modern  Greek  Kingdom.  — Timayenis,  Vol.  II.,  Part  IX.,  Chs.  2, 
3  (11)  ;  Felton,  Vol.  II.,  Fourth  Course,  Lects.  8-11  (11)  ;  Jebb,  Modern 
Greece  ;  Rose,  Christian  Greece  and  Living  Greek  ;  Sargeant,  New  Greece. 

1  The  figure  in  parenthesis  refers  to  the  number  of  the  topic  in  the  Appen- 
dix, where  a  fuller  title  of  the  book  will  be  found. 


APPENDIX 


A    CLASSIFIED   LIST   OF   BOOKS   UPON   ORIENTAL 
AND   GREEK   HISTORY 

N.B.  —  This  list  contains  only  English  works  and  English  translations. 

1.     THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  HISTORY 

(1)  Anthropology  and  Ethnology. 

Deniker,  J.     Kaces  of  Man.     Lond.  1900. 

Ihering,  R.  von.     Evolution  of  the  Aryan.     Lond.  1897. 

Morris,  C.     The  Aryan  Race.     Chicago,  1892. 

Peschel,  O.     Races  of  Man.     N.  Y.  1876. 

Quatrefages,  A.  de.     The  Human  Species.    N.  Y.  1879. 

Ripley,  W.  Z.     Races  of  Europe.     N.  Y.  1899. 

Sayce,  A.  H.     Races  of  the  Old  Testament.     Lond.  1891. 

Sergi,  G.     The  Mediterranean  Race.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1901. 

Taylor,  I.     Origin  of  the  Aryans.     Lond.  1892. 

Tylor,  E.  B.     Anthropology.     N.  Y.  1881. 

(2)  Primitive  Culture. 

C'lodd,  E.     Childhood  of  Religions.     N.  Y.  1890. 

Story  of  Primeval  Man.    N.  Y.  1895. 

Hearn,  W.  E.     Aryan  Household.     Lond.  1879. 
Hoemes,  M.     Primitive  Man.     Lond.  1901. 
Hoffman,  W.  J.     Beginnings  of  Writing.     N.  Y.  1895. 
Joly,  N.     Man  before  the  Metals.     N.  Y.  1883. 
Keary,  C.  F.     Dawn  of  History.     N.  Y. 

Laing,  S.     Human  Origins.     Lond.  1892. 

Mason,  O.  T.     Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture.     N.  Y.  1894. 

Nadaillac,  Marquis  de.     Manners  and  Monuments  of  Prehistoric 

Peoples.     N.  Y.  1892. 
Schrader,  O.     Prehistoric  Antiquities  of  the  Aryan  Race.     Lond. 

and  N.  Y.  1890. 
Starr,  F.     First  Steps  in  Human  Progress.     Meadville,  1895. 
Tylor,  E.  B.     Primitive  Culture.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1874. 

Early  History  of  Mankind.     Bost.  1878. 

355 


356  APPENDIX 


2.     ANCIENT  ORIENTAL   NATIONS 

(3)  Oriental  History,  General. 

Babelon,  E.     Manual  of  Oriental  Antiquities.     N.  Y.  1889. 
Broughton,  W.     History  of  Ancient  Peoples.     N.  Y.  1897. 
Duncker,  M.     History  of  Antiquity.     6  vols.     Lond.  1877. 
Hilprecht,  V,     Explorations  in  Bible  Lands.     Phil.  1903. 
Lenormant,  F.,  and  Chevallier,  E.     Ancient  History  of  the  East. 

2  vols.     Phil.  1871. 
Maspero,  G.  C.  C.     Life  in  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria.     N.  Y. 

1892. 

Dawn  of  Civilization.     Egypt  and  Chaldsea.     Lond.  1894. 

Struggle  of  the  Nations.     N.  Y.  1897. 

Passing  of  the  Empires.     N.  Y.  1899. 

Rawlinson,  G.     Five  Great  Monarchies.     3  vols.     N.  Y.  1871. 
Sayce,  A.  H.     Ancient  Empires  of  the  East.     N.  Y.  1889. 

Record  of  the  Past.     6  vols.     Lond.  1888-92. 

Smith,  P.     Student's  History  of  the  East.     N.  Y.  1871. 

(4)  China. 

Boulger,  D.  C.     History  of  China.     3  vols.     Lond.  1881-84. 

Short  History  of  China.     Phil.  1893. 

Douglass,  R.  T.     Story  of  China.     N.  Y.  1899. 

Giles,  H.  A.     History  of  Chinese  Literature.     N.  Y.  1901. 
Legge,  J.     Chinese  Classics.     5  vols.     Hong  Kong,  1861-72. 

Religions  of  China.     Lond.  1880. 

Martin,  W.  A.  P.     The  Chinese.     N.  Y.  1881. 
Moule,  A.  E.     New  China  and  Old.     Lond.  1891. 
Scidmore,  E.  R.     The  Long-lived  Empire.     N.  Y.  1900. 
Williams,  S.  W.     The  Middle  Kingdom.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1883. 

History  of  China.     N.  Y.  1897. 

(5)  India. 

Dutt,  R.  C.     Ancient  India.     N,  Y.  1896. 
Frazier,  R.  W.     Literary  History  of  India.     N.  Y.  1898. 
Garrett,  J.     Classical  Dictionary  of  India.     Madras,  1871. 
Hopkins,  E.  W.     Religions  of  India.     Bost.  1895. 
Macdonell,  A.  A.     History  of  Sanskrit  Literature.     N.  Y.  1900. 
Monier-Williams,  M.     Indian  Wisdom.     Lond.  1893. 
Ragozin,  Z.  A.     Story  of  Vedic  India.     N.  Y.  1891. 
Rhys-Davids,  T.  W.     Story  of  Buddhist  India.     N.  Y.  1903. 
Wheeler,  J.  T.     Short  History  of  India.     Lond.  1880. 


APPENDIX  357 

(6)  Mesopotamian  Countries. 

Benjamin,  S.  G.  W.     Story  of  Persia.    N.  Y.  1891. 
Budge,  E.  A.  W.     Babylonian  Life  and  History.     Lond.  1891. 
Harkness,  M.  E.    Assyrian  Life  and  History.     Lond.  1883. 
Perrot,    G.,    and   Chipiez,    C.      History  of   Art  in  Chaldsea   and 

Assyria.     2  vols.     Lond.  1884. 
Ragozin,  Z.  A.     Story  of  Assyria.     N.  Y.  1891. 

Story  of  Chaldfea.     N,  Y.  1891. 

Story  of  Media,  Babylon  and  Persia.     N.  Y.  1891. 

Rogers,  R.  W.     Babylonia  and  Assyria.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1900. 
Sayce,  A.  H.     Babylonians  and  Assyrians.     N.  Y.  1889. 

Assyria  ;  its  Princes,  Priests,  and  People.     Lond.  1890. 

Social  Life  of  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.     Lond.  1893. 

(7)  Egypt. 

Broderick,  M.,  and  Morton,  A.  A.     Concise  Dictionary  of  Egyptian 

Archaeology.     Lond,  1901. 
Brugsch  Bey,  H.     History  of  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs.    2  vols. 

Lond.  1881. 

Same,  condensed  and  revised  by  M.  Broderick,     N.  Y.  1891. 

Budge,  E.  A.  W.     Book  of  the  Dead.     3  vols.    Lond.  1901. 

The  Mummy :    Chapters  on  Egyptian  Archaeology.    Camb. 

1893. 

Edwards,  A.  B.     Pharaohs,  Fellahs,  and  Explorers.     N.  Y.  1892. 

Erman,  A.     Life  in  Ancient  Egypt.     Lond.  1894, 

Marriette,  A.    Outlines  of  Ancient  Egyptian  History.    N.  Y.  1892. 

Maspero,  G,  C.  C.     Egyptian  Archaeology.     N.  Y.  1891. 

Perrot,  G.,  and  Chipiez,  C.     History  of  Art  in  Ancient  Egypt.     2 

vols.     Lond.     1883. 
Perry,  W.  S.   Egypt,  the  Land  of  the  Temple  Builders.    Bost.  1898. 
Petrie,  W.  M.  F.     Pyramids  and  Temples  of  Gizeh.     Lond.  1883. 

Ten  Years'  Diggings  in  Egypt,     Lond.  1892. 

History  of  Egypt.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1896. 

Rawlinson,  G.     History  of  Egypt.     2  vols.     Lond.  1881. 

Story  of  Ancient  Egypt.     N.  Y.  1892. 

Sharpe,  S.     History  of  Egypt.     2  vols.     Lond.  1885, 

Wilkinson,  J.  G.    Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 

3  vols.     Bost.  1883. 

(8)  Judea. 

Gratz,  H.     History  of  the  Jews.     5  vols.    Phil.  1891-95. 
Hosmer,  J.  K.     Story  of  the  Jews.     N.  Y.   1891. 
Josephus,  F.     Antiquities  of  the  Jews. 


358  APPENDIX 

Kittel,  K.     History  of  the  Hebrews.     2  vols.     Lond.  1895. 
McCuTdy,  J.  F.     History,  Prophecy,  and  the  Monuments.     3  vols. 

N.  Y.  1895-1901. 
Ottley,  R.  L.     Short  History  of  the  Hebrews.    N.  Y.  1901. 
Renan,  J.  E.     History  of  the  People  of  Israel.    5  vols*    Bost.  1890. 
Sayce,  A.  H.     Early  History  of  the  Hebrews.    N.  Y.  1897. 

(9)  Phoenicia. 

Kendrick,  J.     Phcenicia.     Lond.  1855. 

Perrot,  G.,  and  Chipiez,  C.     History  of  Art  in  Phoenicia.    2  vols. 

Lond.  1885. 
Rawlinson,  G.     Story  of  Phoenicia.     N.  Y.  1898. 


3.    GREEK  HISTORY 

I.  GENERAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS   WORKS 

(10)  Greek  History,  Compends. 

Abbott,  E.     Skeleton  Outline   of  Greek  History,  Chronologically 

arranged.     Lond.  1900. 
Allcroft,  A.   H.,  and  Mason,  W.  E.     History  of  Greece.     6  vols. 

Lond. 
I.    Early  Grecian  History.     To  495  b.c. 

II.  MaS:ing  of  Athens.     495-431  b.c. 

III.  Peloponnesian  War.     431-404  b.c. 

IV.  Sparta  and  Thebes.     404-362  b.c. 
V.    Decline  of  Hellas.     371-323  b.c. 

VI.   History  of  Sparta.     490-289  b.c 
Bury,  J.  B.     History  of  Greece  (one  vol.  edition).     N.  Y.  1900. 
Cox,  G.  W.     General  History  of  Greece.     N.  Y.  1894. 
FyfEe,  C.  A.     Greece  (Primer).     Lond. 
Harrison,  J.  A.     Story  of  Greece.     N.  Y.  1893. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Survey  of  Greek  Civilization.     Meadville,  1896. 
Joy,  J.  R.     Grecian  History.     Chautauqua  Press,  1900. 
Oman,  C.  W.  C.     History  of  Greece.     N.  Y.  and  Lond.  1901. 
Schuckburgh,  E.  S.     Short  History  of  the  Greeks.     Camb.  1901. 
Smith,  W.     Student's  History  of  Greece.     N.  Y. 

(11)  General  Treatises. 

Abbott,  E.     History  of  Greece.     2  vols.     1888-92. 
Curtius,  E.     History  of  Greece.     5  vols.     N.  Y.  1875. 
Duncker,  M.     History  of  Greece.     2  vols.     Lond,  1883. 


APPENDIX  359 

Duruy,  V.    History  of  Greece.     8  vols.    Bost.  1892. 

Felton,    C.   C.     Greece,   Ancient  and  Modern.     2  vols,  in  one. 

Bost.  1893. 
Grote,  G.     History  of  Greece.     12  vols.  N.  Y.  1849.     Same,  10 

vols.     Lond.  1888. 
Holm,  A.     History  of  Greece.    4  vols.    Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1894-98. 
Thirlwall,  C.     History  of  Greece.     8  vols.     Lond.  1855. 
Timayenis,  T.  T.     History  of  Greece.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1883. 

(12)  Miscellaneous  Works. 

Butcher,  S.  H.     Some  Aspects  of  the  Greek  Genius.     N.  Y.  1893. 
Freeman,  E.  A.     Historical  Essays,  Second  Series.     K  Y.  1873. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.  Problems  in  Greek  History.     N.  Y.  1892. 
Pater,  W.     Greek  Studies.     N.  Y.  1895. 

(13)  Sources. 

TEschylus.     Tragedies.     Tr.  by  E.  H.  Plumptre.     N.  Y.  1868. 
Aristophanes.     Select  Plays.     Tr.  by  J.  H.  Frere.     N.  Y.  1886. 
Aristotle.      Athenian    Constitution.      Tr.     by    F.    G.    Kenyon. 

Lond.  1891. 
Arrian.      Anabasis    of    Alexander.      Tr.    by    E.  J.    Chinnock. 

Lond.  1893. 
Demosthenes.     Orations.    5  vols.     (Bohn.)  .  .  .  2  vols.     (Harpers' 

Classical  Library. ) 
Euripides.     Tragedies.     Tr.  by  E.  P.  Coleridge.     2  vols.  (Bohn.) 
Herodotus.     Tr.  by  G.  Rawlinson.     4  vols.     N.  Y.  .  .  .  Tr.  by 

H.    Cary.      (Bohn.)  .  .  .  Analysis  and  Summary,    by  J.    T. 

Wheeler.     (Bohn.) 
Homer.     Iliad.     Tr.  by  W.  C.  Bryant.     Bost.  1870.  .  .  .  Tr.  by 

Lang,  Leaf,  and  Myers.     Lond.  1893. 
Odyssey.      Tr.   by   W.    C.    Bryant.    Bost.   1872.    .    .    .    Tr. 

by  Butcher  and  Lang.     Lond.  1893. 
Pausanias.    Description  of  Greece.     Tr.  by  J.  G.  Eraser.    6  vols. 

N.  Y.  1898.  .  .  .  Tr.  by  A.  R.  Shilleto.    2  vols.     (Bohn.) 
Pindar.     Extant  Odes.     Tr.  by  E.  Myers.     N.  Y.  1877. 
Plato.     Dialogues.     Tr.  by  B.  Jowett.     5  vols.     N.  Y.  1875. 
Plutarch.     Lives.     Tr.  by  J.  Dryden.     3  vols.      N.  Y.  ...  Ed.  by 

A.  H.  Clough.   Bost.    1881.    .    .    .    Tr.  by  A.  Stewart  and  G. 

Long.     4  vols.     N.  Y.  1889. 
Sophocles.     Tragedies.     Tr.  by  E.  H.  Plumptre.     N.  Y.  1871. 
Thucydides.     Tr.    by  B.  Jowett.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  .  .  .  Analysis 

and  Summary  by  J.  T.  Wheeler.     (Bohn.) 
Xenophon.     Works.     Tr.  by  H.  G.  Dakyas.     4  vols.     Lond.  1892. 


360  APPENDIX 


II.     SPECIAL  PERIODS 

(14)  Mycenaean  Age. 

Diehl,  C.     Excursions  in  Greece  to  Recently  Explored  Sites. 

Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1893. 
Gardner,  P.     New  Chapters  in  Greek  History  :  Historical  Results 

of  Recent  Es^cavations.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1892. 
Hall,  H.    R.     The    Oldest  Civilization   of   Greece.     Lond.  and 

Phil.  1901. 
Perrot,  G.,  and  Chipiez,  C.     History  of  Art  in  Primitive  Greece  ; 

Mycensean  Art.     2  vols.    Lond,  1894. 
Ridgeway,  W.     Early  Age  of  Greece.     2  vols.     Camb.  1901-1903. 
Schlieraann,  H.     Mycense.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1878. 

Tiryns.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1886. 

Troja.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1891. 

Schuchhardt,  C.     Schliemann's  Excavations.     Lond.  1891. 
Tsountas,  C,  and  Manatt,   J.  I.     The  Mycensean  Age.     Bost. 
1897. 

(15)  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age. 

Collins,  W.  L.     Homer's  Iliad.    Phil.  1870.     (Anc.  Classics.) 

Homer's  Odyssey.     Phil.  1875.     (Anc.  Classics.) 

Jebb,  R.  C.     Introduction  to  Homer.     Bost.  1869. 
Keller,  A.  G.     Homeric  Society.     N.  Y.  1902. 

Lang,  A.     Homer  and  the  Epic.     N.  Y.  1893. 

Leaf,  W.     Companion  to  the  Iliad.     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1892. 

Perry,  W.  C.     Women  of  Homer.     N.  Y.  1898. 

Timayenis,  T.  T.     Greece  in  the  Time  of  Homer.     N.  Y.  1885. 

Warr,  G.  C.  W.     The  Greek  Epic.     Lond.-  and  N.  Y.  1895. 

(16)  Athenian  Empire.     Its  Rise  and  Fall. 

Cox,    G.    W.      The    Greeks    and    the   Persians.     N.   Y.    1876. 
(Epochs  of  Anc.  History.) 

The    Athenian    Empire.     N.  Y.    1890.     (Epochs  of  Anc. 

History. ) 

Grant,  A.  J.     Greece  in  the  Age  of  Pericles.     N.  Y.  1893. 
Grundy,  G.  B.     The  Great  Persian  War.     N.  Y.  1901. 
Lloyd,  W.  W.     Age  of  Pericles.     2  vols.     Lond.  1875. 
Sankey,   C.      Spartan   and   Theban   Supremacies.      N.  Y.    1877. 
(Epochs  of  Anc.  History.) 

See  also  (27)  Pericles. 


APPENDIX  361 

(17)  Graeco- Macedonian  Epoch. 

Be  van,  E.  li.     House  of  Seleucus.     2  vols.     Lond.  1902. 

Cartels,  A.  M.  Rise  of  the  Macedonian  Empire.  N.  Y,  1887. 
(Epochs  of  Anc.  History.) 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.  Greek  Life  and  Thought  from  the  Age  of  Alex- 
ander to  the  Roman  Conquest,     Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1887. 

Empire  of  the  Ptolemies.     Lond.  1895. 

and  Oilman,  A.     Story  of  Alexander's  Empire.     N.  Y.  1887. 

See  also  (27)  Alexander. 

III.     SPECIAL  TOPICS 

(18)  Antiquities,  General. 

Gardner,  P.,  and  Jevons,  E.  B.     Manual  of  Greek  Antiquities. 

N.  Y.  1895. 
Gow,  J.     Companion  to  School  Classics.     N.  Y.  1889. 
Harper's  Dictionary  of  Classical  Literature  and  Antiquities.    N.  Y. 

1897. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Greece  and  Greek  Antiquities.    (Primer.)  Lond. 
Seyffert,  O.     Dictionary  of  Classical  Antiquities.     Lond.  1891. 
Smith,  W.     Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.    2  vols. 

Lond.  1890. 

See  also  (22)  Life  and  Manners. 

(19)  Archaeology  and  Art. 

Butler,  H.  C.     Story  of  Athens.     N.  Y.  1902. 

Collignon,  M.     Manual  of  Greek  Archaeology.     Lond.  1886. 

Dyer,  F.  H.     Ancient  Athens.     Lond.  1873. 

Furtwangler,  A.     Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture.     Lond.  1895. 

Gardner,  E.  A.'    Greek  Sculpture.    Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1897. 

Ancient  Athens.     N.  Y.  1902. 

Hamlin,  A.  D.  F.     Text-book  of   the   History  of  Architecture. 

Chaps.  6,  7,  "  Greek  Architecture."     N.  Y.  1897. 
Harrison,  J.  E.     Introductory  Studies  in  Greek  Art.    Lond.  1894. 

and  Verrall,   M.    de   G.      Mythology  and  Monuments  of 

Ancient  Athens.     Lond.  1890. 

Mitchell,  L.  M.     History  of  Ancient  Sculpture.     N.  Y.  1883. 
Murray,  A.  S.     History  of  Greek  Sculpture.    2  vols.    Lond.  1890. 

Handbook  of  Greek  Archaeology.     N.  Y.  1892. 

Perry,  W.  C.     Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture.     Lond.  and  N.  Y. 

1882. 
Reber,  E.  von.     History  of  Ancient  Art.     N.  Y.  1882. 


362  APPENDIX 

Redford,  G.     Manual  of  Sculpture  (Ancient).  N.  Y.  1882. 

Smith,   T.  R.,  and   Slater,   J.     Architecture,  Classic   and  Early 

Christian.     N.  Y.  1882. 
Stuart,  J.,  and  Revett,  N.     Antiquities  of  Athens.     Lond.  and 

N.  Y.  1893. 

Tarbell,  F.  B.     History  of  Greek  Art.     Lond.  1896. 

Westropp,  H.  M.     Handbook  of  Archaeology.  Lond.  1867. 

(20)  Constitutional  Antiquities. 

Boeckh,  A.     Political  Economy  of  Athens.    Lond.  1842  (a  new 

edition  not  translated,  1886). 
Botsford,  G.  W.     Athenian  Constitution.     N.  Y.  1893. 
Coulanges,  F.  de.     The  Ancient  City.     Bost.  1874.  * 
Fowler,  W.  W.     City-State  of  Greeks  and  Romans.     N.  Y.  1893. 
Freeman,  E.  A.     Federal  Government  in  Greece  and  Italy.    N.  Y. 

1863. 
Gilbert,   G.     Constitutional  Antiquities  of  Greece   and  Sparta. 

Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1895. 
Greenidge,  A.  H.  J.     Handbook  of  Greek  Constitutional  History. 

Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1896. 
Schomann,  G.  F.     Assemblies  of  the  Athenians.     Camb.  1838. 

Athenian  Constitutional  History.     Oxf.  1878. 

Antiquities  of  the  Greeks.     The  State.     Oxf.  1880. 

Whibley,  L.     Political  Parties  in  Athens.     Camb.  1889. 

Greek  Oligarchies.     N.  Y.  1896. 

(21)  Geography  and  Descriptions. 

Barrows,  S.  J.    Isles  and  Shrines  in  Greece.    Bqgt.  1898. 

Freeman,  E.  A.    Studies  in  Travel  —  Greece.     2  vols.     N.  Y.  1893. 

Hanson,  C.  H.    Land  of  Greece.     Lond.  1885. 

Kiepert,  H.     Atlas  Antiquus.     Bost. 

Longman's  Classical  Atlas.     N.  Y.  1899. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Rambles  and  Studies  in  Greece.     Lond.  1876. 

Tozer,  H.  F.     Primer  of  Classical  Geography.     N.  Y.  1877. 

Islands  of  the  ^gean.    N.  Y.  1890. 

(22)  Life  and  Manners. 

Becker,  W.  A.     Charicles.     Lond.  1888. 

Bliimner,  H.     Home  Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.     Lond.  1893. 
Davidson,  T.     Education  of  the  Greek  People.     N.  Y.  1894. 
Evans,  M.  M.     Chapters  on  Greek  Dress.     Lonc^.  1893. 
Gulick,  C.  B.    Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks.     N.  Y.  1902. 


APPENDIX  363 

Guhl,  E.  K.,  and  Koner,  W.  D.    Life  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Lond.  1889. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Old  Greek  Education.    Lond.  1883. 

Old  Greek  Life.     (Primer.)     N.  Y.  1876. 

Social  Life  in  Greece.    Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1890. 

■  Smith,  J.  M.    Ancient  Greek  Female  Costume.     Lond.  1882. 

(23)  Literature. 

Donaldson,  J.  W.    Theatre  of  the  Greeks.    Camb.  1836. 
Fowler,  H.  N.     History  of  Greek  Literature.    N.  Y.  1902. 
Haigh,  A.  E.     Attic  Theatre.     Oxf.  1889. 
Jebb,  R.  C.     Greek  Literature.     (Primer.)     N.  Y.  1878. 

Qrowth  and  influence  of  Greek  Classical  Poetry.    Bost.  1894. 

Attic  Orators.     2  vols. 

Jevons,  F.  B.     History  of  Greek  Literature.     Lond.  1889. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.     History  of  Greek  Classical  Literature.     2  vols. 

N.  Y.  1880. 
Moulton,  R.  G.    Ancient  Classical  Drama.    Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1890. 
Murray,  G.  G.  A.  History  of  Ancient  Greek  Literature.  Lond.  1897. 
Perry,  T.  S.     History  of  Greek  Literature.     N.  Y.  1890. 
Symonds,  J.  A.     Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets.     2  vols.    Lond.  1873. 
White,  C.  A.     Classical  Literature.     N.  Y.  1877. 

(24)  Philosophy. 

Benn,  A.  W.     Greek  Philosophers.     2  vols.     Lond.  1883. 

Philosophy  of  Greece  in  relation  to  the  History  and  Charac- 
ter of  the  People.     Lond.  1898. 

Burt,  B.  C.    Brief  History  of  Greek  Philosophy.     Bost.  1889. 
Ferrier,  J.  F.     Lectures  on  Greek  Philosophy.    Lond.  1888. 
Marshall,  J.     Short  History  of  Greek  Philosophy.    N.  Y.  1891. 
Mayor,  J.  B.     Sketch  of  Ancient  Philosophy.     Camb.  1881. 
Zeller,E.    Outlines  of  the  History  of  Greek  Philosophy.  N.  Y.  1886. 

(25)  Religion  and  Mythology. 

Bulfinch,  T.     Age  of  Fable.     (New  Edition.)    Phil.  1898. 
Collignon,  M.    Manual  of  Greek  Mythology  in  relation  to  Greek 

Art.     Lond.  1890. 
Dyer,  L.    The  Gods  of  Greece.    Lond.  and  N.  Y.  1891. 
Ely,  T.    Olympos:  the  Gods  of  Greece  and  Rome.     Lond.  and 

N.  Y.  1891. 
Galey,  C.  M.     Classic  Myths.    Bost.  1893. 
Gueyber,  H.  A.     Myths  of  Greece  and  Rome.    N.  Y.  1893. 
Murray,vA.  S.     Manual  of  Mythology.     Phil.  1895. 
Petiscus,  A.  H.     Gods  of  Olympos.     Lond.  1892. 
morky's  greek  hist.  —  22 


364  APPENDIX 


IV.    BIOGRAPHY 

(26)  Biography,  Collected. 

Collins.  W.  L.  (ed.).     Ancient  Classics  for  English  Readers.     28 

vols.    Ediu.  and  Phil.  1879-88. 
Cox,  G.  W.     Lives  of  Greek  Statesmen.    2  vols.     N.  Y.  1885. 
Plutarch.     Lives.     See  for  editions  (13). 
Smith,  W.     Dictionary  of  Greek  and   Roman    Biography  and 

Mythology.     3  vols.     Lond.  1849. 

(27)  Biography,  Individuals. 

JEschylus.    By  R.  S.  Copleston.     (Anc.  Classics.) 
Alexander.     By  T.  A.  Dodge.     Bost.  1890. 

By  R.  Steele.     Lond.  1894. 

By  B.  I.  Wheeler.     N.  Y.  1900. 

Aristophanes.     By  W.  L.  Collins.     (Anc.  Classics,) 
Aristotle.    By  A.  Grant.     (Anc.  Classics.) 

By  A.  Grote.    2  vols.    Lond.  1872. 

By  G.  H.  Lewes.     Lond.  1864. 

By  T.  Davidson.    N.  Y.  1892. 

Demosthenes.     By  L.  BrMif.     Chicago,  1881. 

By  W.  J.  Brodriff.     (Anc.  Classics.) 

By  E.  H.  Butcher.     N.  Y.  1882. 

Euclid.    By  C.  L.  Dodgson.     Lond.  1885. 
Euripides.    By  W.  B.  Donne.     (Anc.  Classics.) 

By  J.  P.  Mahaffy.    N.  Y.  1879. 

Herodotus.    By  G.  C.  Swayne.     (Anc.  Classics.) 
Hesiod  and  Theognis.    By  J.  Davies.     (Anc.  Classics.) 
Lucian.     By  W.  L.  Collins.     (Anc.  Classics.) 
Pericles.    By  E.  Abbott.     N.Y.  1891. 

1    By  W.  W.  Lloyd.    2  vols.    Lond.  1875. 

Philip  and  Alexander.     By  D.  G.  Hogarth.    N.  Y.  1894. 
Pindar.     By  F.  D.  Morice.     (Anc.  Classics.) 
Plato.     By  C.  W.  Collins.     (Anc.  Classics.) 

By  G.  Grote.     3  vols.     Lond.  1865. 

Plutarch.    By  R.  C.  Trench.     Lond.  1873. 
Socrates.     By  G.  Grote.     N.  Y.  1858. 
Sophocles.    By  B.  L.  Campbell.     N.Y.  1880. 

By  C.  W.  Collins.     (Anc.  Classics.) 

Thucydides.     By  W.  L.  Collins.     (Anc.  Classics.) 
Xenophon.    By  A.  Grant.     (Anc.  Classics.) 


APPENDIX  365 


V.    HISTORICAL  FICTION 

(28)  The  Mythical  Age. 

Baldwin,  J.     Old  Greek  Stories.     N.  Y.  1895. 

Stories  of  the  Golden  Age.     N.  Y.  1887. 

Church,  A.  J.     Heroes  and  Kings.     Lond.  1883, 

Cox,  G.  W.     Tales  from  Greek  Mythology.     Lond.  1863. 

Tales  of  Ancient  Greece.     Chicago,  1879. 

Francillon,  R.  E.     Gods  and  Heroes.     Lond.  1891. 
Hawthorne,  N.     Tanglewood  Tales.     Bost.  1881. 

Wonder  Book.     Bost.  1879. 

Kingsley,  C.     The  Heroes.     Lond.  1873. 

Lamed,  A.     Old  Tales  retold  from  Greek  Mythology.     N.  Y. 

1876. 
Smith,  S.     Myths  and  Heroes.     Bost.  1873. 
Witt,  C.     Classic  Mythology.     (Arr.  for  children.)     N.  Y.  1883. 

(29)  Trojan  War. 

Brooks,  E.     Story  of  the  Iliad.     Phil.  1890. 

Story  of  the  Odyssey.     Phil.  1891. 

Church,  A.  J.     Stories  from  Homer.     N.  Y.  1879. 

Story  of  the  Iliad.     Lond.  1891. 

Story  of  the  Odyssey.    Lond.  1891. 

Hey  wood,  T.     The  Iron  Age.     (Old  Drama.)     Lond.  1632. 

Lam.b,  C.     Adventures  of  Ulysses.     Lond.  1890. 

Witt,  C.     Tales  of  Troy.     Bloomington,  111.  1898. 

Milman,  H.  H.     Taking  of  Troy.     (Poem.)     Lond.  1839. 

Phillips,  S.     Ulysses.     (Drama.)     N.  Y.  1902. 

Shakespeare,    W.      Troilus  and  Cressida.      (Drama.)      Rolfe's 

edition.     N.  Y.  1888. 
Haggard,    H.    R.,  and  Lang,    A.     The   World's  Desire.     Lond. 

1890. 
Goethe,   J.    W.   von.     Iphigenia  in   Tauris.     (Drama.)     Lond. 

1892. 

(30)  Persian  Wars. 

Child,  L.  M.     Philothea.     Bost.  1836. 

Church,  A.  J.     Stories  from  Herodotus.     Lond.  1881. 

Story  of  the  Persian  War.     N.  Y.  1881. 

Three  Greek  Children.     N.  Y.  1900. 

Eckstein,  E.     Aphrodite.     N.  Y.  1886. 


366  APPENDIX 

(31)  Age  of  Pericles. 

Becker,  W.  A.     Cliaricles.     Lond.  1866. 
Bulwer,  E.     Pausanias,  the  Spartan.     Lond.  1876. 
Church,  A.  J.     Pictures  from  Greek  Life.     Lond.  1893. 

Stories  from  the  Greek  Tragedians.     Lond.  1879. 

Landor,  R.     Fountain  of  Arethusa.     Lond.  1848. 
Landor,  W.  S.     Pericles  and  Aspasia.     Bost.  1871. 
Lynne,  E.     Amymone.     Lond.  1848. 

Hamerling,  R.     Aspasia.     N.  Y.  1882. 

(32)  Fall  of  Athens. 

Barth61emy,  J.  J.     Young  Anacharsis. 
Church,  A.  J.     Callias.     Meadville,  1891. 

Fall  of  Athens.    Lond.  1894. 

Stories  from  the  Greek  Comedians.     Lond.  1892. 

Browning,  R.     Balaustion's  Adventure.     (Poem.)     Bost.  1871. 
Leatham,  E.  A.     Charmione.     Lond.  1864. 

Otway,  T.     Alcibiades.     (Old  Drama.)     Lond.  1768. 
Palmer,  E.     Heroes  of  Ancient  Greece.     Edin.  1888. 

(33)  Graeco-Macedonian  Period. 

Church.  A.  J.     Young  Macedonian  in  the  Army  of  Alexander. 

Lond.  1890. 
Greenough,  H.     Apelles  and  his  Contemporaries.     Bost.  1859. 
Lee,  N.     Alexander  the  Great.     (Old  Drama.)     Lond.  1704. 
Lyly,  J.     Alexander  and  Campaspe.     (Old  Drama,  written  about 

1584,  published  in  Works  of  British  Dramatists.     Bost.  Lee  and 

Shepard. ) 


INDEX 


Diacritic  marks :   c,  4h,  as  in  chasm ;  c  as  in  ice ;  g  as  in  gem.    Single  Italic  letters  are 
silent.    The  long  and  short  marks  used  with  vowels  need  no  explanation. 


Abde'ra,  Greek  colony,  143. 

A'braham,  Jewish  patriarch,  61. 

Aby'dos,  Greek  colony,  143. 

Academy  at  Athens,  259. 

Acarna'nia,  district  of  Greece,  75. 

Acca'dians,  their  civilization,  33. 

Aehse'an  league,  formed,  336 ;  its 
constitution,  337  ;  conflict  with 
Sparta,  338;  reduction  by  Philip 
v.,  339  ;  revival  under  Philopoe- 
men,  342  ;  reduction  by  Rome, 
345. 

A-eha'ia,  district  of  Greece,  76,  118. 

A€helo'us  Kiver,  74. 

A-eh'eron  River,  75. 

A^hil'les,  Greek  hero,  86,  95. 

Acrocorin'thus,  342. 

Acrop'olis,  citadel  of  Athens,  75, 
229  ;  of  Attica,  121 ;  captured  by 
Cylon,  123  ;  by  Pisistratus,  130 ; 
adorned  by  Pericles,  232-236. 

^ge'an  Sea,  65,  72. 

JEgi'na,  temple  at,  197  ;  subdued  by 
Athens,  211. 

^'gospot'ami,  battle  at,  276. 

^nos,  Greek  colony,  143. 

^o'lians,  Greek  tribe,  79;  migra- 
tion to  Asia  Minor,  81. 

^s'€hylus,  tragic  poet,  195,  245. 

^to'lia,  district  of  Greece,  75. 

^to'lian  league,  formed,  335 ;  joins 
with  Sparta,  338;  war  with  the 
Achfeans,  339 ;  reduction  by 
Rome,  343,  344. 

Agamem'non,  Greek  hero,  84. 

Agath'ocles,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  341. 


Agesi-la'us,  king  of  Sparta,  279,  280. 
Agis  III. ,  king  of  Sparta,  338. 
Agni,  Hindu  god,  28. 
Ag'ora,  early  Greek  assembly,  100, 

109 ;  market  place  of  Athens,  230, 

259. 
Agrigen'tum,  Greek  colony,  147. 
Ah'riman,  Persian  deity,  173. 
Al9se'us,  lyric  poet,  160. 
Alcibi'ades,     Athenian     statesman 

and  traitor,  269,  270,  272-275. 
Alc'man,  lyric  poet,  161. 
Alcmeon'idse,  the,  124. 
Alexan'der  I.,  king  of  Macedonia, 

301. 
Alexander  III.  (the  Great),  307-311, 

320. 
Alexan'dria,  founded,  311 ;  a  center 

of  culture,  330,  332,  337. 
Alphabet,  Phoenician,  59. 
Ambra'cia,  district  of  Greece,  145. 
Amphictyon'ic  League,  150. 
Amphip'olis,    battle    at,   268 ;    cap- 
tured by  Philip  II.,  302. 
Anac'reon,  lyric  poet,  160. 
Anaxag'oras,  Greek  philosopher, 248. 
Anaximan'der,   Greek  philosopher, 

163. 
Anaxim'i-nes,    Greek    philosopher, 

163. 
An'dros,  island  of  the  ^gean,  73. 
Antal'cidas,  Peace  of,  280,  282. 
Ante'nor,  Greek  sculptor,  197. 
Antig'onus,  successor  of  Alexander, 

317. 
Antigonus,  king  of  Macedonia,  338. 


367 


368 


INDEX 


Aii'tio€h,  capital  of  Syria,  317  ;  a 
center  of  culture,  329,  347. 

Anti'o€hus  I.,  king  of  Syria,  318. 

Antiochus  III.  (the  Great),  344. 

Antiochus  IV.  (Epiphanes),  330. 

Apel'la,  Spartan  assembly,  115. 

Aphrodi'te  (Venus),  102. 

Apol'lo,  101  ;  his  oracle  at  Delphi, 
75,  150. 

Apollodo'rus,  Greek  painter,  298. 

Apollo'nia,  in  Thrace,  144  ;  in  Epi- 
rus,  145. 

Ara'tus,  336,  338. 

Arbe'la,  see  Gaugamela. 

Arca'dia,  district  of  Greece,  76. 

Ar-ehela'us,  king  of  Macedonia,  301. 

Ar-ehil'o€hus,  iambic  poet,  IGO. 

Architecture,  Chinese,  23;  Hindu, 
30  ;  Chaldean,  35  ;  Assyrian,  38  ; 
Egyptian,  53  ;  Mycenaean,  88,  89  ; 
Homeric,  98  ;  of  the  Greek  temple, 
154  ;  under  Pericles,  230-236  ;  at 
Pergamum,  324  ;  at  Antioch,  329  ; 
at  Alexandria,  331. 

Archonship,  established,  122  ;  under 
Clisthenes,  133;  under  Pericles, 
221. 

Areop'agus,  hill  of,  230.  See  also 
Council. 

A'res  (Mars),  101. 

Arginu'sse  islands,  battle  at,  275. 

Ar'golis,  district  of  Greece,  77,  112. 

Argonau'tic  expedition,  86. 

Ar'gos,  city  of  Argolis,  77,  79 ;  op- 
poses Sparta,  118;  a  democracy, 
139  ;  a  center  of  art,  240. 

Ari'on,  lyric  poet,  161. 

Aristag'oras,  tyrant  of  Miletus,  174. 

Aristi'des,  Athenian  statesman,  182, 
183,  205-207. 

Aristocracy,  at  Sparta,  115  ;  at  Ath- 
ens, 125  ;  at  Thebes,  Chalcis,  and 
Eretria,  1.39. 

Aristogi'ton,  tyrannicide,  131. 

Aristoph'anes,  comic  writer,  294, 295. 

Ar'istotle,   Greek  philosopher,  292; 


teacher  of  Alexander,  306 ;  quoted, 
122,  124,  126,  1.30. 

Army  organization.  Spartan,  47  ; 
Persian,  172  ;  Athenian,  223,  282  ; 
Macedonian,  301. 

Ar'rian,  Greek  historian,  347. 

Art,  as  an  element  of  civilization, 
13 ;  comparison  of  Greek  and 
Oriental,  71  ;  beginning  of  Greek, 
154  ;  under  Pisistratus,  130  ;  after 
Persian  wars,  196-199;  under 
Pericles,  228-241 ;  younger  Attic 
school,  295-297 ;  at  Pergamum, 
324;  at  Antioch,  329.  See  also 
Architecture,  Sculpture,  Paint- 
ing. 

Artapher'nes,  Persian  satrap,  174. 

Artaphernes,  Persian  general,  178. 

Ar'temis  (Diana),  102. 

Ar'yan  people,  early  culture,  26 ; 
settlement  in  India,  26,  27  ;  in 
Greece,  77,  78. 

As€le'pius  (^scnlapius),  253. 

Asia  Minor,  early  nations  of,  65 ;  a 
part  of  Hellas,  73 ;  Greek  migra- 
tions to,  81  ;  a  seat  of  culture,  94  ; 
Greek  cities  in,  167  ;  conquered 
by  Persia,  168 ;  revolt  of  the  Io- 
nian cities,  174-176  ;  their  libera- 
tion by  Athens,  205. 

Asshur-bani-pal',  Assyrian  king,  37, 
41. 

Assyr'ian  empire,  37-42. 

Astar'te,  Phoenician  goddess,  57. 

Athe^na  (Minerva),  102. 

Ath'ens,  early  history,  120-134  ;  aids 
the  Ionian  cities,  174  ;  becomes  a 
maritime  power,  183  ;  fortified  by 
Themistocles,  202  ;  head  of  the 
Delian  confederacy,  206 ;  Long 
Walls  built,  210;  a  seat  of  em- 
pire, 211  ;  a  center  of  art,  228- 
239 ;  enters  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  264  ;  reduced  by  Lysander, 
276  ;  forms  a  new  confederacy, 
281  ;  a  seat  of  learning,  320,  347. 


INDEX 


369 


A'thos,  Mt.,  178,  185. 

"  A'treus,  Treasury  of,"  90. 

Ba'al,  Phoenician  deity,  57. 

Bab'ylon,  city  of  Babylonia,  33,  34  ; 
under  Nebucliadnezzar,  43  ;  cap- 
tured by  Cyrus,  169  ;  by  Alexan- 
der, 312. 

Babylo'nian  empire,  early,  32-37  ; 
later,  42-45. 

Ba'tis,  defender  of  Gaza,  311. 

Battles  (chronologically  arranged), 
Mar'athon,      179;     Thermop'ylae, 

187  ;  Artemis'ium,  188 ;  Sal'amis, 

188  ;  Him'era,  284  ;  Plataj'a,  190  ; 
Myc'ale,  191  ;  Eurym'edon,  208 ; 
Tan'agra,  211  ;  CEnoph'yta,  211  ; 
Chaerone'a  (446  b.c),  213;  De'- 
lium,  268;  Amphip'olis,  268  ;  Ar- 
ginu'sse  Is.,  275 ;  ^gospot'ami, 
276  ;  Cunax'a,  278  ;  Cni'dus,  280  ; 
Leuc'tra,  282  ;  Mantine'a,  283  ; 
Chserone^a  (338  b.c),  305 ;  Grani'- 
cus,  309;  Is'sus,  310;  Gaugame'- 
la  (Arbela),  312 ;  Hydas'pes,  314; 
Ip'sus,  317  ;  Sella'sia,  338  ;  Cynos- 
ceph'alffi,  343  ;  Pyd'na,  344. 

Behistun'  inscription,  35. 

Beller'ophon,  Greek  hero,  84. 

Bema,  platform  on  the  Pnyx,  219. 

Bero'sus,  Chaldean  historian,  34. 

Bl'on,  pastoral  poet,  331. 

Bithyn'ia,  kingdom  in  Asia  Minor, 
319. 

Black  broth,  Spartan  dish,  117. 

Boeo'tia  (be-o'shi-a),  district  of 
Greece,  75 ;  reduced  by  Athens, 
211  ;  ally  of  Sparta,  265 ;  confed- 
eracy of,  under  Epaminondas,  281. 

Book  of  the  Dead,  56. 

Bou'le,  of  the  Homeric  age,  99 ;  of 
the  early  city  state,  108.  See  also 
Council. 

Brah'ma,  Hindu  god,  29. 

Brah'mans,  Hindu  priests,  28,  29, 
30. 


Bud'dha,  see  Gautama. 

Buleute'rium,  council  hall  at  Athens, 
231. 

Byzan'tium  (-shi-um),  a  Greek  col- 
ony, 143  ;  a  Persian  stronghold 
taken  by  Pausanias,  205 ;  revolts 
from  Athens,  302 ;  seat  of  later 
Greek  culture,  302. 

Cadme'a,  citadel  of  Thebes,  84,  281. 

Cad'mus,  mythical  founder  of 
Thebes,  84. 

Cai'cus  River,  73. 

Calli'nus,  elegiac  poet,  160. 

Cambu'nian  mountains,  74. 

Camby'ses,  Persian  king,  169. 

Cappado'cia,  kingdom  of  Asia 
Minor,  319. 

Ca'ria,  district  of  Asia  Minor,  73, 208. 

Carians,  early  Greek  tribe,  78,  93. 

Car'pathus,  island  of  the^gean,  73. 

Car'thage,  a  Phcenician  colony,  58, 
144  ;  its  wars  with  Syracuse,  284  ; 
driven  from  Sicily  by  Rome,  341. 

Caryat'i-des,  236. 

Cassan'der,  king  of  Macedonia,  317. 

Caste  system  of  India,  28. 

Cat'ana,  Greek  colony,  147,  270. 

Cays'ter  River,  73. 

Ce'-erops,  mythical  founder  of 
Athens,  84,  121. 

Census  classes  of  Attica,  127. 

Cephalle'nia,  island  of  the  ^gean, 
75. 

-Chalge'don,  Greek  colony,  143,  275. 

■ChalQid'i-^e,  colonized,  142 ;  cam- 
paign of  Brasidas  in,  267  ;  con- 
federacy of,  281 ;  reduced  by 
Philip  II.,  304. 

■Chal'gis,  city  of  Euboea,  139,  141, 
142,  342. 

-Chalde'a,  district  of  Babylonia,  33. 

-eiie'ops,  see  Khufu. 

-Chersone'sus  (Taurica),  144; 
(Thracian),  ruled  by  Miltiades, 
176, 


370 


INDEX 


China  and  its  civilization,  21-26. 

■Ghi'os,  island  of  the  ^gean,  82  ; 
independent  ally  of  Athens,  212 ; 
revolts,  302. 

-eiil'ton,  Greek  dress,  255. 

Ci'mon,  Athenian  statesman,  205, 
207-209,  212. 

Citizens  of  Athens,  219. 

City  state,  71 ;  its  elements,  106  ;  its 
government,  108. 

Clazom'ense,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  82. 

Cleom'enes  L,  Spartan  king,  181. 

Cleomenes  III.,  338. 

Cleom'enic  war,  342. 

Cle'on,  Athenian  statesman,  266- 
268. 

Cleru'chies,  Athenian  colonies,  141. 

Clis'thenes,  Athenian  statesman, 
131. 

Cli'tus,  murdered  by  Alexander,  313. 

Clubs,  Athenian,  260. 

CnI'dus,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  82  ; 
battle  near,  280. 

Co^y'tus  River,  75. 

Co'drus,  "last  of  the  kings,"  121, 
122. 

Col'-ehis,  86,  144. 

Colonies,  Phcenician,  58 ;  Greek, 
139-148. 

Col'ophon,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  82, 
167. 

Comedy,  Athenian,  293-295. 

Commerce,  Babylonian,  43  ;  Egyp- 
tian, 50 ;  Phoenician,  57  ;  early 
Greek,  98  ;  Athenian,  253. 

Confu'cius,  Chinese  reformer,  24. 

Congress  of  Corinth  (481  b.c),  185  ; 
(338  B.C.),  305. 

Co'non,  Athenian  general,  280. 

Cor9y'ra,  Greek  colony,  145;  em- 
broiled with  Corinth,  264  ;  sedi- 
tion at,  267. 

Cor'inth,  conquered  by  the  Dorians, 
113 ;  an  aristocratic  city,  139 ;  a 
colonizing  center,  141  ;  war  with 
Athens,  211  j  enters  the  Pelopon- 


nesian   war,  264  ;    congresses  at, 

185,    305 ;    destroyed   by   Rome, 

345. 
Corinthian  style  of  architecture,  157. 
Corinthian  war,  280. 
Cos,  island  of  the  ^gean,  73,   82, 

302. 
Council,  of  the  Areopagus,  123,  220  ; 

of  Four  Hundred  and  One,  124  ; 

of  Four   Hundred,  127  :    of  Five 

Hundred,  133,  220. 
Crete,  island  of  the  Mediterranean, 

73,  91. 
Crit'i-as,  Athenian  tyrant,  278. 
Croe'sus,  king  of  Lydia,  67 ;  visited 

by  Solon,  128 ;  conquers  the  Ionian 

cities,  167  ;  conquered  by  Cyrus, 

168. 
Cro'ton,  Greek  colony,  146. 
Cu'mse,  Greek  colony,  146. 
Cunax'a,  battle  at,  278. 
Cune'iform  writing,  33,  35,  172. 
Cyc'la-des,  islands  of  the  ^gean,  78, 

121. 
Cy'lon,  conspiracy  of,  123. 
Cy'me,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  81. 
Cynos9eph'al8e,  battle  of,  343. 
Cynu'ria,  district  of  Greece,  118. 
Cy'rus  the  Great,  Persian  king,  168, 

169. 
Cyrus  the    Younger,    Persian  gov- 
ernor of  Asia  Minor,  276,  278. 
Cythe'ra,   island  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, 73,  267. 
Cyz'i-eus,  Greek  colony,  143. 

Dari'us  I.,  Persian  king,  169;  in- 
vades Greece,  177. 

Darius  III.,  opposes  Alexander,  310, 
312,  313. 

Da'tis,  Persian  general,  178. 

Da'vid,  Jewish  king,  62. 

De'lian  confederacy,  its  formation 
under  Aristides,  206 ;  extension 
by  Cimon,  208 ;  becomes  the 
Athenian  empire,  211, 


INDEX 


371 


De'lium,  battle  at,  268. 

De'los,  island  of  tbe^gean,  73, 179. 

Del'phi,  city  of  Phocis,  75. 

Del'phic  oracle,  75,  140,  143,  160, 
168. 

Deme,  Attic  township,  132. 

Deme'ter  (Ceres),  102. 

Deme'trias,  city  of  Thessaly,  342. 

Democracy,  at  Athens,  131-134, 
217  ;  at  Argos  and  Elis,  139. 

Demos' thenes,  Athenian  general, 
267,  272,  273. 

Demosthenes,  Athenian  orator,  289  ; 
opposes  Philip,  304 ;  his  death, 
318. 

Dicas'teries,  Athenian  courts,  221. 

Diodo'rus  of  Sicily,  Greek  histo- 
rian, 347. 

Dionys'ia,  festival,  153. 

Dionys'ius  (-nish'ius),  the  Elder 
and  the  Younger  of  Syracuse,  285. 

Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  Greek 
historian,  347. 

Dioiiy'sus  (Bacchus),  103,  195,  242, 
293. 

Dioscu'rias,  Greek  colony,  144. 

Dodo'na,  in  Epirus,  75,  78,  100. 

Do'rians,  migration  to  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, 79,  83,  91 ;  to  Asia  Minor, 
82  ;  characteristics  of,  112. 

Dor'ic  style  of  architecture,  155. 

Do'ris,  district  of  Greece,  75. 

Dorp'feld,  German  archaeologist,  87. 

Dra'co,  Athenian  reformer,  124. 

Drama,  Athenian,  rise  of,  194-196  ; 
under  Pericles,  245-247.  See  also 
Comedy. 

Dress,  Greek,  255. 

E€€le'sia,  Athenian  assembly,  under 
Clisthenes,  133  ;  under  Pericles, 
219. 

Education,  at  Sparta,  116;  at  Ath- 
ens, 128,  248. 

Egypt,  early  civilization,  45-56  ; 
under  the  Ptolemies,  318, 330-332. 


E'lamltes,  34. 

E'lea  (Velia),  146,  163. 

Ele'giac  poetry,  160. 

Eleusin'ian  mysteries,  153,  270. 

Eleuthe'ria,  festival,  191. 

Elgin  marbles,  238. 

E'lis,  district  of  Greece,  76 ;  occupied 
by  the  Dorians,  81  ;  •  subject  to 
Sparta,  118  ;  a  democracy,  139 ;  an 
ally  of  Philip  II. ,  305  ;  member  of 
the  vEtolian  league,  336 ;  joins 
the  Achseans,  342. 

Epaminon'das,  Theban  patriot,  281 , 
283. 

Eph'esus,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  82; 
allied  with  Lydia,  167  ;  taken  by 
Alexander,  310. 

Ephial'tes,  Athenian  statesman,  209. 

Ephialtes,  the  "Judas  of  Greece," 
188. 

Eph'ors  at  Sparta,  115. 

Epic  poetry,  its  rise,  95  ;  its  decline, 
159. 

Epicu'rus,  Greek  philosopher,  .321. 

Epidam'nus,  Greek  colony,  145. 

Epip'olse,  heights  of,  271. 

Epi'rus,  district  of  Greece,  74,  81. 

Ere-ehthe'um,  temple  at  Athens,  234. 

Ere^h'theus,  mythical  king  of 
Athens,  121,  232. 

Ere'tria,  city  of  Euboea,  seat  of 
colonization,  139,  141,  142;  cap- 
tured by  the  Persians,  179. 

Er'ythrse,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  82. 

Eubcea,  island  of  the  ^gean,  139, 
142,  156,  186. 

Eu'clid,  mathematician  at  Alexan- 
dria, 332. 

Eu'menes  II.,  king  of  Pergamum, 
324. 

Eu'patrids,  Athenian  nobles,  122, 
125. 

Euphra'tes  River,  32. 

Eurip'ides,  tragic  poet,  247. 

Eurym'edon  River,  battle  near,  208. 

Eux'ine,  or  Black  Sea,  143. 


372 


INDEX 


Festivals,  Greek,  162. 

"  Fetters  of  Greece,"  342,  343. 

Finances,  Atlienian,  225. 

Five  Years'  Truce,  212. 

Flaniini'nus,  Koman  general,  343. 

"Four  Hundred"  at  Athens,  274, 

275. 
Frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  237. 

Games,  Panhellenic,  151. 

Gan'ges  River,  27. 

Gaugame'la  (Arbela),  battle  of,  312. 

Gau'tama  (Buddha),  Hindu  re- 
former, 30. 

Ga'za,  city  of  Asia,  311. 

Ge'la,  Greek  colony,  147. 

Gens,  Greek,  106. 

Gerou'sia,  Spartan  senate,  115. 

Gi'zeh,  city  of  Egypt,  47,  54. 

Gor'dium,  capital  of  Phrygia,  310. 

Government,  Chinese,  24  ;  Assyrian, 
38;  Egyptian,  50;  Hebrew,  63; 
Persian,  171 ;  Homeric,  99  ;  of  the 
early  city  state,  106 ;  Spartan, 
114  ;  early  Athenian,  121  ;  under 
Draco,  121;  under  Solon,  126; 
under  Clisthenes,  132 ;  under 
Pericles,  217-223  ;  of  the  Achsean 
league,  337. 

Grani'cus,  battle  of,  309. 

Grave  reliefs  at  Athens,  239. 

Gy'ges,  king  of  Lydia,  167. 

Gylip'pus,  Spartan  general,  272. 

Gymnasia  at  Athens,  249,  259. 

Ha'des  (Pluto),  103. 
Halicarnas'sus,  city  of  Asia  Minor, 

82. 
Ha'lys  River,  65,  168. 
Hammura'bi,  Babylonian  king,  34. 
Han'nibal,     Carthaginian     general, 

339,  342. 
Harmo'dius,  tyrannicide,  131. 
He'brews,  see  Judea. 
Helise'a,  judicial   body   at  Athens, 

127,  222. 


Hel'las,  extent  of,  72, 139. 
Helle'nes,  77-82. 

Hellen'ic  culture,  see  Art,  Archi- 
tecture, Sculpture,  Painting. 

Hellenis'tic  culture,  322-332. 

Hellespont,  73. 

He'lots  at  Sparta,  114  ;  revolt  of,  209. 

Hephses'tus  (Vulcan),  102. 

He'ra  (Juno),  102. 

Heracle'a  (Pontica  and  Cherso- 
nesus),  144. 

Her'acles  (Hercules),  85. 

"  Heracli'dae,  Return  of  the,"  79. 

Heracli'tus,  Greek  philosopher,  199. 

Her'mes  (Mercury),  102. 

Her'mus  River,  73. 

Herod'otus,  Greek  historian,  34,  47, 
249;  quoted,  175,  181,  184,  185, 
187,  190. 

He'siod,  epic  poet,  159. 

Hes'tia  (Vesta),  102. 

Hima'tion,  Greek  dress,  256. 

Him'era,  Greek  colony,  147  ;  battle 
at,  284. 

Hippar'chus,  son  of  Pisistratus,  131. 

Hipparchus,  Alexandrian  scientist, 
322. 

Hip'pias,  son  of  Pisistratus,  and 
tyrant  of  Athens,  driven  into 
exile,  131  ;  befriended  by  Persia, 
175  ;  assists  the  Persians  at  Mara- 
thon, 179. 

His'sarlik,  site  of  Troy,  86. 

Hit'tites  in  Asia  Minor,  66. 

Ho'ang  River,  22. 

Homeric  poems,  86,  93,  94-97,  130, 
193. 

Hop'lites,  heavy-armed  troops,  222. 

House,  Greek,  254. 

Hydas'pes,  battle  at  the,  314. 

Hyk'sos,  or  Shepherd  Kings,  48. 

Hymet'tus,  mountain  in  Attica,  75. 

Ica'ria,  island  of  the  ^gean,  73. 
Icti'nus,  Athenian  architect,  233. 
Il'iad,  the,  95, 


INDEX 


373 


Im'bros,  island  of  the  ^gean,  73. 

In'dia  and  its  civilization,  26-31. 

Indra,  Hindu  god,  29. 

Indus  River,  27. 

Industrial  arts,  primitive,  15  ;  Chi- 
nese, 22;  Assyrian,  42;  Egyptian, 
49  ;  Mycenaean,  87  ;  Homeric,  98  ; 
at  Athens,  252. 

lo'nian  revolt,  174-176. 

lonians,  Greek  tribe,  79  ;  migration 
to  Asia  Minor,  82  ;  characteristics 
of,  120. , 

lon'ic  style  of  architecture,  156. 

Ip'sus,  battle  of,  317. 

Isoc'ra-tes,  Athenian  orator,  289, 

Is'sus,  battle  of,  310. 

Isthmian  games,  153. 

Is'trus,  Greek  colony,  144. 

Ith'aca,  island  in  Ionian  Sea,  75,  96. 

Jews,  attempt  to  Hellenize  the,  329. 
Jude'a  and  its  civilization,  60-65. 

Khu'fu  (Cheops),  48. 

Kings,  of  Babylon,  34,  43  ;  of  As- 
syria, 37  ;  of  Egypt,  48,  49,  50  ; 
of  Judea,  62  ;  of  Homeric  times, 
99 ;  of  the  early  city  state,  108 ; 
of  Sparta,  114;  of  Athens,  121; 
of  Persia,  171 ;  of  Macedonia,  300. 

Laco'nia,  77,  112,  118. 

Lam'a^hus,  270,  271. 

Lamian  war,  318. 

Lamp'sacus,  Greek  colony,  143. 

Language,  as  an  element  of  civiliza- 
tion, 12  ;  classification,  18  ;  Chi- 
nese, 25  ;  Sanskrit,  28  ;  Chaldean, 
34 ;  Egyptian,  55 ;  Phoenician, 
59  ;  Greek,  158. 

La'o-tse,  Chinese  philosopher,  24. 

Lau'rium,  silver  mines  at,  76,  184. 

Legends  of  early  Greece,  83-86. 

Lel'eges,  early  Greek  tribe,  78,  93. 

Leon'idas,  Spartan  king,  at  Ther- 
mopylae, 187  ;  188. 


Les'bos,  island  of  the  ^igean,  inde- 
pendent ally  of  Athens,  212 ;  re- 
volt of,  266. 

Leuc'tra,  battle  of,  282. 

Library,  of  Asshur-bani-pal,  41  ;  at 
Pergamum,  325  ;  at  Alexandria, 
331. 

Literature,  Chinese,  25 ;  Hindu, 
28  ;  Assyrian,  41  ;  Egyptian,  56  ; 
Hebrew,  64  ;  early  Greek,  158- 
161 ;  after  Persian  wars,  193-196  ; 
under  Pericles,  245-251  ;  after 
Pericles,  287-290  ;  at  Pergamum, 
325 ;  at  Alexandria,  331  ;  later 
Greek,  347. 

Lo'cri,  Greek  colony,  146. 

Lo'cris,  East  and  West,  districts  in 
Greece,  75. 

Long  walls  of  Athens,  built  by  Peri- 
cles, 210 ;  razed  by  Lysander, 
276  ;  rebuilt  by  Conon,  280. 

Lu'cian,  Greek  satirist,  347. 

Lux'or,  city  of  Egypt,  49,  54. 

Lyce'um,  at  Athens,  259. 

Lycur'gus,  Spartan  lawgiver,  113. 

Lyd'ia,  kingdom  of  Asia  Minor,  66  ; 
conquers  the  Greek  cities,  167  ; 
conquered  by  Persia,  168. 

Lyric  poetry,  159-161,  193,  194. 

Lysan'der,  Spartan  admiral,  276. 

Lys'ias,  Athenian  orator,  289. 

Lysiui'achus,  317. 

Lysip'pus,  Greek  sculptor,  297. 

Macedo'nia,  geography  of,  300  ;  its 
extension  by  Philip  II.,  302  ;  later 
kingdom  of,  318,  334,  340 ;  its  re- 
duction by  Rome,  344. 

Maean'der  River,  73. 

Magna  Gra3cia  (gre'she-a),  145  ;  ab- 
sorbed by  Rome,  340. 

Magne'sia,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  81  ; 
conquered  by  Lydia,  167. 

Maha-bha'rata,  Hindu  poem,  29. 

Ma'lis,  district  of  Greece,  75. 

Man'etho,  Egyptian  historian, 47, 331. 


374 


INDEX 


Mantine'a,  city  of  Arcadia,  dis- 
mantled, 280;  refortified,  283; 
battle  at,  283. 

Ma'nu,  Hindu  code  of,  29. 

Mar'athon,  battle  of,  179. 

Mardo'nius,  Persian  general,  177, 
178,  190. 

Marone'a,  Greek  colony,  143. 

Marriage  at  Athens,  25(5. 

Marso'lus,  governor  of  Caria,  302. 

Maruts',  Hindu  gods,  29. 

Massil'ia,  Greek  colony,  147. 

Meg'acles,  archon  of  Athens,  123. 

Megalop'olis,  city  of  Arcadia,  283. 

Meg'ara,  city  of  Megaris,  conquered 
by  the  Dorians,  113  ;  an  aristo- 
cratic city,  139;  a  colonizing 
center,  141,  143,  144;  joins  the 
Achaean  league,  337. 

Meg'aris,  district  of  Greece,  75. 

Mem'phis,  city  of  Egypt,  46,  47. 

Menan'der,  comic  poet,  321. 

Men'cius,  Chinese  writer,  25. 

Men'de,  Greek  colony,  142. 

Mesem'bria,  Greek  colony,  144. 

Mesopota'raian  valley,  32. 

Messe'nia,  district  of  Greece,  77, 
112,  118,  305. 

Metho'ne,  Greek  colony,  142. 

Metics,  foreign  residents  of  Athens, 
219. 

Metro'um,  public  record  office  at 
Athens,  231. 

Mile'tus,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  82  ;  a 
colonizing  center,  141,  143,  144  ; 
leads  the  Ionian  revolt,  174;  re- 
duced by  Persia,  176. 

Milti'ades,  Greek  general,  176  ;  at 
Marathon,  179,  180 ;  his  fall,  181. 

Mi'nos,  king  of  Crete,  85. 

Min'yse,  early  Greek  tribes,  78,  93. 

Mne'sicles,  Athenian  architect,  234. 

Moe'ris,  Lake,  48. 

Mo'loch,  Phoenician  god,  57. 

Molos'sia,  kingdom  in  Epirus,  285. 

Monarchy,  see  Kings. 


Money,    Lydian,  67  ;   Argive,  112  ; 

Athenian,  225. 
Mongolian   settlements   in   China, 

21. 
Mos'-ehus,  pastoral  poet,  331. 
Mo'ses,  Jewish  lawgiver,  61. 
Music,  Egyptian,  55 ;  Greek,  160. 
Myc'ale,  battle  of,  191. 
My^e'nse,  city  of  Argolis,  79  ;  ruins 

of,  89. 
Mycense'an  civilization,  91-94. 
My'ron,  Greek  sculptor,  198. 
Mytile'ne,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  81. 

Nau'cratis,  Greek  settlement  in 
Egypt,  145. 

Naupac'tus,  212;  Peace  of,  339. 

Navy,  Persian,  172 ;  Athenian,  224. 

Nax'os,  Greek  colony  in  Sicily,  146, 
270. 

Naxos,  island  of  the  ^gean,  73, 179, 
208. 

Nebuchadnez'zar,  43. 

Ne'mean  games,  153. 

Nicias  (nish'i-as),  Athenian  states- 
man, 266 ;  Peace  of,  268  ;  at  Syra- 
cuse, 270,  271-273. 

Nile  River,  46. 

Nin'eveh,  capital  of  Assyria,  33,  37. 

Nomes,  Egyptian,  47,  50,  318. 

Odes'sus,  Greek  colony,  144. 
Ode'um  of  Pericles,  231. 
Odys'seus    (Ulysses),    Greek    hero, 

75,  86. 
Od'yssey,  the,  95. 
Ol'bia,  Greek  colony,  144. 
Olympie'um  at  Athens,  231. 
Olym'pian  games,  151. 
Olym'pus,  Mt.,  75,  100,  101. 
Olyn'thus,  Greek  colony,  143  ;  head 

of    the    Chalcidian    confederacy, 

281 ;  taken  by  Philip  II.,  302,  304. 
Or^hom'enus,   city  of   Boeotia,    75; 

monuments  at,  90. 
Or'muzd,  Persian  deity,  173. 


INDEX 


375 


Os'sa,  Mt.,  75. 

Os'tracism,  instituted  by  Clisthenes, 
133. 

Pseo'nius,  sculptor  of  Mende,  240. 
Painting,   Assyrian,  39;   Egyptian, 

339;  Athenian,  239,  297. 
Panatliense'a,  festival,  153. 
Paphlago'nia,     kingdom     of     Asia 

Minor,  319. 
Parmen'ides,  Greek  philosopher,  200. 
Parme'nio,  general  of  Alexander,  313. 
Parnas'sus,  Mt.,  75. 
Parr/ia'sius  (-shi'iis),  Greek  painter, 

298. 
Parthenon  at  Athens,  233. 
Pausa'nias,  Spartan  commander,  his 
victory  at  Platsea,  190  ;  his  treach- 
ery at  Byzantium,  205,  206. 
Pediments  of  the  Parthenon,  237. 
Pelas'gians,  early  tribe  of  Hellas, 

78,  93. 
Pe'lion,  Mt.,  75. 

Pelop'idas,  Theban  patriot,  281,  301. 
Peloponne'sian  league,  207,  264. 
Peloponne'sus,  76,  84. 
Pene'us  River,  75. 
Pentel'icus  mountain,  75. 
People,  divisions  of,  at  Sparta,  114  ; 

in  Attica,  121,  127,  218. 
Perdic'cas,  successor  of  Alexander, 

317. 
Per'gamum,   kingdom    of,   319 ;    a 

center  of  culture,  323,  347. 
Per'icles,  Athenian  statesman,  209- 
213  ;  his  oratory,  240  ;  his  death, 
265. 
Perioe'ci  at  Sparta,  114. 
Perin'thus,  Greek  colony,  143. 
Perseph'one  (Proserpina),  102. 
Per'seus,  king  of  Macedonia,  344. 
Per'sia,  67  ;  its  civilization,  168-173  ; 
its  wars   with   Greece,    177-192  ; 
its  later  interference  with  Greece, 
273,  274  ;  its  war  with  Sparta,  279  ; 
its  conquest  by  Alexander,  312. 


Pha'lanx,  Greek,  224 ;  under  Epa- 
minondas,  282 ;  under  the  Mace- 
donians, 301. 
Phanagori'a,  Greek  colony,  144. 
Pha'sis,  Greek  colony,  144. 
Phil'ip  II.,  king  of  Macedonia,  301- 

306. 
Philip  v.,  339,  343. 
Philip'pi,  city  of  Thrace,  founded, 

302. 
Philip'pides    (Pheidippides),   Athe- 
nian runner,  179. 
Philo-e'rates,  Peace  of,  304. 
Philopoe'men,  general  of  the  Achsean 

league,  342. 
Philosophy,  early  Greek,  161-164; 
after  the  Persian  wars,  199-201; 
under  Pericles,  248  ;  its  culmina- 
tion at   Athens,   290-293;    Post- 
Aristotelian,  321,  322  ;  at  Alexan- 
dria, 332. 
Phocse'a,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  82, 141. 
Pho'cians,  in  the  Sacred  war,  303, 

305. 
Pho'cion  (-shi-on),  Athenian  states- 
man, 303. 
Pho'9is,  district  of  Greece,  75,  211, 

265,  303,  305. 
Phoeni'cia  and  its  civilization,  56- 

60. 
Phra'try,  Greek,  107. 
Phryn'i€hus,  tragic  poet,  196. 
Phy'le,  Greek,  107. 
Pin'dar,  lyric  poet,  194. 
Pin'dus  mountains,  74. 
Pirse'us,  seaport  of  Athens,  its  for- 
tification,   204 ;     its    commerce, 
253. 
Pisan'der,  Athenian  general,  274. 
Pisis'tratus,  tyrant  of  Athens,  129. 
Platge'a,   ally  of  Athens  at  Mara- 
thon,  179 ;    battle  of,   190 ;    de- 
stroyed by  Sparta,  266  ;  rebuilt, 
280. 
Pla'to,  Greek  philosopher,  291. 
Plu'tarch,  Greek  biographer,  347. 


376 


INDEX 


Political  parties  in  Greece,  110;  at 

Athens,  129,  222. 
Polycli'tus,  sculptor  of  Argos,  240. 
Polygno'tus,  Athenian  painter,  231, 

239. 
Posei'don  (Neptune),  102,  232. 
Posido'nia  (Psestum),  Greek  colony, 

146. 
Potidae'a,    Greek  colony,  143,  262, 

302. 
Praxit'eles,  Athenian  sculptor,  297. 
Propylae'a,  porch  of  the  Acropolis, 

234. 
Pryt'anes,  presiding  section  of  the 

boule,  220. 
Prytane'um,  abode  of  the  pry  tan  es, 

220,  231. 
Psammet'i^hus   I.,   Egyptian   king, 

49,  145. 
Ptol'emy  I.  of  Egypt,  317,  318. 
Pun'jab,  district  of  India,  27. 
Pyd'na,   city  of   Macedonia,  taken 

by  Alexander,  302  ;  battle  of,  344. 
Pyramids,  Egyptian,  48,  53. 
Pythag'oras,     Greek     philosopher, 

163. 

Rama'yana,  Hindu  poem,  29. 

Ram'eses  XL,  Egyptian  king,  49. 

Religion,  Chinese,  24  ;  Hindu,  29, 
30  ;  Chaldean,  35  ;  Egyptian,  51  ; 
Hebrew,  64  ;  Persian,  172 ;  Ho- 
meric, 100  ;  of  the  early  Greek 
states,  140-153. 

Rhe'gium,  Greek  colony,  146. 

Rhodes,  island  of  the  ^]gean,  73, 
82;  revolts  from  Athens,  302; 
a  republic,  319  ;  a  center  of  cul- 
ture, 326,  347. 

Romans,  their  alliance  with  the 
Greek  cities,  338  ;  their  absorp- 
tion of  Hellas,  340-345  ;  their  cul- 
ture influenced  by  the  Greeks,  348. 

Sacred  war,  303,  305. 
Sa'is,  city  of  Egypt,  48,  49. 


Sakka'rah,  village  of  Egypt,  48. 

Sal'amis,  battle  of,  188. 

Sa'mos,  island  of  the  ^gean,  73, 
82,  142  ;  independent  ally  of  Ath- 
ens, 212. 

San'skrit  language,  28. 

Sap'pho,  lyric  poetess,  160. 

Sar'dis,  capital  of  Lydia,  66  ;  cap- 
tured by  Cyrus,  168  ;  burned  by 
the  Athenians,  174,  175 ;  taken 
by  Alexander,  310. 

Sar'gon  I.,  Babylonian  king,  34. 

Sargon  II.,  Assyrian  king,  37,  63. 

Satraps,  of  Assyria,  38;  of  Persia, 
171. 

Saul,  Jewish  king,  62. 

Schlie'mann,  German  archseologist, 
86. 

Science,  Hindu,  29  ;  Chaldean,  36  ; 
Egyptian,  52 ;  Greek  at  Perga- 
mum,  325 ;  at  Alexandria,  332. 

Sco'pas,  sculptor  of  Paros,  296. 

Sculpture,  Assyrian,  39 ;  Egyptian, 
54 ;  Greek,  early,  158 ;  after  Per- 
sian wars,  196-199;  under  Peri- 
cles, 236-239 ;  younger  Attic 
school,  295-297  ;  at  Pergamum, 
324  ;   at  Rhodes,  326. 

Seleu'Qidse,  kingdom  of  the,  317. 

Seleu'-eus  I.  of  Syria,  317. 

Seli'nus,  Greek  colony,  147,  158. 

Sella'sia,  battle  of,  338. 

Sennach'erib,  Assyrian  king,  37. 

Se'ti  I.,  Egyptian  king,  49. 

Shalmane'ser,  Assyrian  king,  37. 

Sicily,  Greek  colonies  in,  146 ; 
Athenian  expedition  to,  269-273  ; 
course  of  its  history,  284-286  ;  ab- 
sorbed by  the  Romans,  341. 

Sicyon  (sish'i-on),  city  of  the  Pele- 
ponnesus,  113,  139,  337. 

Si'don,  city  of  Phoenicia,  57. 

Simon'ides,  lyric  poet,  193. 

Sino'pe,  Greek  colony,  144. 

Si'va,  Hindu  god,  29. 

Slavery,  Greek,  218,  254. 


INDEX 


377 


Smyr'na  (Asia  Minor),  81,  167. 

Social  customs,  in  xVssyria,  42  ;  in 
Homeric  Greece,  104  ;  in  Sparta, 
117  ;  in  Athens,  258-261. 

Social  war  (358-355  b.c),  302  ;  (220- 
217  B.C.),  339. 

Soc 'rates,  Greek  philosopher,  290. 

Sol'omon,  Jewish  king,  62. 

So'lon,  Athenian  lawgiver,  125-129. 

So'ma,  Hindu  god,  29. 

Sophists  as  teachers,  248. 

Soph'ocles,  tragic  poet,  245. 

Spar'ta,  city  of  Laconia,  early  his- 
tory, 112-120  ;  united  with  Athens 
against  Persia,  178;  opposes  the 
fortification  of  Athens,  203  ;  hos- 
tility to  Athens,  209 ;  enters  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  264  ;  suprem- 
acy in  Greece,  277-281  ;  war 
with  Thebes,  282  ;  relation  to  the 
Achaean  league,  338,  339,  342. 

Spha^te'ria,  capture  of,  267. 

Stesi-eh'orus,  lyric  poet,  161. 

Sto'as,  Poecile  (Painted  Porch), 
231,  239,  321  ;  Basileos,  231  ; 
Eleutherios,  231. 

Strate'gi,  1.33,  221. 

Sumir'ians,  the,  33. 

Syb'aris,  Greek  colony,  146. 

Symposium,  Greek,  260. 

Syr'ia,  317,  328. 

Tan'agra,  battle  of,  211. 

Tan'a-is,  Greek  colony,  144. 

Ta'nis,  city  of  Egypt,  48,  49. 

Ta'o-ism,  Chinese  religion,  24, 

Taren'tum,  Greek  colony,  146  ;  con- 
quered by  Rome,  341. 

Te'gea,  city  of  Arcadia,  118. 

Tem'pe,  vale  of,  75,  186. 

Temples,  Hindu,  31  ;  Chaldean,  36  ; 
Egyptian,  54;  Greek,  154;  see 
also  Architecture. 

Te'nos,  island  of  the  ^^gean,  73. 

Ten  Thousand,  march  of  the,  278. 

Te'os,  city  of  Asia  Minor,  143. 


Terpan'der,  lyric  poet,  160. 
Tha'les,  Greek  philosopher,  162. 
Tha'sos.,  island  of  the  ^gean,  revolt 

of,  208. 
Theater  of  Dionysus,  231,  242-244. 
Thebes  (thebz),  city  of  Egypt,  47, 

49. 
Thebes,  city  of  Boeolia,  75,  84  ;  an 

aristocratic  city,  139 ;  supremacy 

of,  281-284  ;  in  the  Sacred   war, 

313 ;   alliance  with  Athens,  305  ; 

destroyed  by  Alexander,  309. 
Themis'to-eles,  Athenian  statesman, 

182  ;  creates  the  maritime  power 

of     Athens,    183,     184 ;     at    the 

Congress     of     Corinth,    185 ;     at 

Artemisium,   187 ;    at  the  battle 

of  Salamis,  188  ;  fortifies  Athens, 

202-204  ;  his  character  and  exile, 

204,  205. 
Theoc'ritus,  pastoral  poet,  331. 
Thermop'ylse,     pass     of,    75,    186 ; 

battle   of,  187  ;   taken  by  Philip 

II.,  305. 
These'um,  temple  at  Athens,  2.30. 
The'seus,  mythical  king  of  Athens, 

85,  121. 
Thesmoth'etse,  junior  archons,  122, 

222. 
Thes'pis,  lyric  poet,  195. 
Thes'saly,  district  of  Greece,  75. 
"Thirty  Tyrants"  at  Athens,  278. 
Thirty  Years'  Truce,  213,  263,  264. 
Thoth'mes  III.,  Egyptian  king,  48. 
Thrace,  conquered  by  Darius,  189  ; 

by    Alexander,    302 ;    granted  to 

Lysimachus,  319. 
Thrasybti'lus,     Athenian      patriot, 

278. 
Thucyd'i-des,  Greek  historian,  264, 

268  ;  his  history,  287,  288 ;  quoted, 

269,  270,  273. 
Tig'lath-Pileser,  Assyrian  king,  37. 
Ti'gris  River,  32. 
Timo'leon,  the  liberator  of   Sicily, 

286. 


378 


INDEX 


Tir'yns,  ancient  city  of  Argolis,  79, 

88. 
Tissapher'nes,  Persian  satrap,  274, 

279. 
Toro'ne,  Greek  colony,  143. 
Trape 'zus  (Trebizond ) ,  Greek  colony , 

144. 
Tribes,  the  four  Ionian,  122,  132  ;  of 

Clisthenes,  132. 
Tributary  districts  of  the  Athenian 

Empire,  213. 
Trit'tys,  Attic  county,  132. 
Tro'as,  district  of  Asia  Minor,  73. 
Trojan  war,  86,  96. 
Tyrannicides  at  Athens,  131 ;  statues 

of,  197,  231. 
Tyrants,  Greek,  110. 
Tyre,    city  of   Phoenicia,  57  ;   cap- 
tured by  Alexander,  311. 
Tyrtse'us,  elegiac  poet,  160. 

Ur,  city  of  Chaldea,  34,  61. 

Vaphi'o  cups,  90. 

Ve'das,  Hindu  religious  hymns,  28. 


Ve'lia    (Elea),  Greek  colony,   146, 

16.3. 
Vish'nu,  Hindu  god,  28,  29. 

Women,  in  Homeric  times,  104;  in 
time  of  Pericles,  257. 

Writing,  picture,  17  ;  in  China,  25 ; 
in  Chaldea,  34  ;  in  Egypt,  55 ;  in 
Phoenicia,  59  ;  in  Crete,  91. 

Xen'ophon,    Greek   historian,    278, 

279,  288. 
Xenoph'anes,    Greek    philosopher, 

163. 
Xer'xes,    Persian    king,    184,   188, 

189. 

Yang'tze  River,  22. 

Zan'cle    (Messana),   Greek  colony, 

147. 
Ze'no,  Greek  philosopher,  321. 
Zeus  (Jupiter),  75,  101. 
Zeux'is,  Greek  painter,  298. 
Zoro-as'ter,  Persian  reformer,  172. 


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